CLARK  $0^ 


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L^R/fc^T-BooK  ON  Rhetoric; 

UHivfRenY  or 

CAUtownteM^TiNG  THE  Development  op  the  Science  with 

j^rr*  "   '.;"        •"!!_ Exhaustive  Practice  in  Composition. 

llpCASIOIS  IiIfiBt 

A  Course  of  Practical  Lessons  Adapted  for  use  in  Higli  Schools  and 
Academies,  and  in  thie  Lower  Classes  of  Colleges. 

BY 

BRAINERD   KELLOGG,  A.M., 

Professor  of  the  English  Lhinguage  and  Literature  in  the  Brooklyn 
Collegiate  and  Polytechnic^stitute,  and  one  of  the  authors  of 
Beed  &  KjMogg's  "  Chmded  Lessmis^  in  English" 
ih£r  LeSipns  in  English. " 


In  preparing  this  work  ijpon  Rhetoric,  the  author's  aim  has  been  to 
write  a  practical  text-book  foi"  High  Schools,  Acadenjies,  and  the  lower 
classes  of  Colleges,  basjed  upon  the  science  rather  than  an  exhaustive 
treatise  upon  the  science  itself.  ' 

This  work  has  grown  u^^^out  of  the  belief  that^he  rhetoric  which 
the  pupil  needs  is  not^that  whiph  lodges  finally  in  thUmeni6.ry,  but  that 
which  has  worked  itSj  way  down  into  his  tongue  and'  fingeJrs,  enabling 
him  to  speak  and  write  the  better  for  having  studi^Sit.-v  The  a'uthor 
believes  that  the  aim  of  the  study  should  be  to  put  the  pupil  in  posses- 
sion of  an  art,  and  that  this  can  be  done  not  by  forcing  the  science  into 
him  through  eye  and  ear,  but  by  drawing  it  out  of  him,  in  products, 
through  tongue  and  pen.  Hence  all  explanations  of  principles  are  fol- 
lowed by  exhaustive  practice  in  Composition — to  this  everything  is  made 
tributary. 


"This  is  just  the  work  to  take  the 
place  of  the  much-stilted  'Sentential 
Analysis'  that  is  being  waded  through  to 
little  purpose  by  the  Grammar  and  High 
School  pupils  of  our  country.  This  work 
not  only  teaches  the  discipline  of  analyz- 
ing thought,  but  leads  the  student  to 
feel  that  it  is  his  thought  that  is  being 
dealt  with,  dissected,  and  unfolded,  to 
etficient  expression."— ^o/.tr.  S.  Albee, 
Prest.  cf  State  Normal  School,  Oshkosh, 
Wis.  ^ 

276  pages,  ISitio,  attractively  bound  in  cloth.  r^'y 

\l 

CLARK  &  MAYNARD,  Publishers,  New  York'. 


"  Kelt.ogo's  Khetoric  is  evidently  the 
fruit  of  scholarship  and  large  experience. 
The  authof  has  collected  his  own  mate- 
rials, and  di*^posed  of  them  with  the  skill 
of  a  master;  his  j-tatements  are  precise, 
lucid,  and  sufficiently  copious.  Nothing 
is  sacrificed  to  f  how  ;  the  book  is  intended 
for  use.  and  the  abundance  of  examples 
will  constitute  one  of  its  chief  merits  in 
the  eyes  of  the  thorough  teacher."— Pro/". 
A.  S.  Cook,  Johns  Jlopkins  University, 
BaUimorc,  Md. 


m 


^ 


■g^—— ^^— I—— g— ■—— M^— ^—■—■■1 ^^^——l ^ 

AText-Book  on  English  Literature, 

With  copious  extracts  from  the  leading  authors,  English  and  Ameri- 
can. With  full  Instructions  as  to  the  Method  in  which  these  are 
to  be  studied.     Adapted  for  use  in  Colleges,   High  Schools, 

/>  Academies,  etc.  By  Brainerd  Kellogg,  A.M.,  Professor  of 
^O  the  English  Language  and  Literature  in  the  Brooklyn  Collegiate 
an(i  Polytechnic  Institute,  Author  of  a  "Text-Book  on  Rhet- 
oric," and  one  of  the  Authors  of  Reed  &  Kellogg's  "  Graded 
Lessons  in  English,'*  and  **  Higher  Lessons  in  English." 
Handsomely  printed.     12mo,  478  pp. 

The  Book  is  dividedJnIo  the  following  Periods: 

Period  I.— BefiCre  the  Norman  Conquest,  670-1066.  Period  II.— 
From  the  Conqi^st  to  Chaucer's  death,  1066-1400.  Period  III.— 
From  Chaucer's  jjeath  to  Elizabeth,  1400-1558.  Period  IV.— Eliza- 
beth's reign,  155§-1603.  Period  V. — From  Elizabeth's  death  to  the 
RestTjtation,  1603^$46a  Period  VI.— From  the  Restoration  to  Swift's 
death,  1660-174^  P^d  VII. -From  Swift's  death  to  the  French 
Revolution,  174B3789.  Period  VIII.— From  the  French  Revolution, 
^    1789,  onwards.!  ^ 

/^,  Eacb  Perioa  is  preceded  by  a  Lesson  containing  a  brief  resum6  of  the 

H  great  historicalev^kts  that  have  had  somewhat  to  do  in  shaping  or  in  color- 
rC-iog  the  literatune  oTthat  period. 

J  \j  The  author  KimVin  this  book  to  furnish  the  pupil  that  which  he  cannot 
^  help  himself  to.  rN^oups  the  authors  so  that  their  pliices  in  the  lino  and 
y  their  relations  to  each  otner  can  be  seen  by  the  pupil;  it  throws  light  upon 
^.the  authors'  ttm^s  an  1  surroundinjrs,  and  notes  the  great  influences  it  work, 
^  helping  to  make  t.\ieir  writings  what  they  are ;  it  points  out  sucli  of  these 
>,      as  should  be  studied.  \ 

!^  Extracts,  a^  many  and  as  ample  as  the  limits  of  a  text-book  would 
fallow,  have  been  made  from  the  principal  writei-s  of  each  Period,  feuch  are 
\  selected  as  contam  the  characteristic  traits  of  taetr  authors,  both  in 
thought  and  expression,  and  but  lew  of  these  extract^  have  ever  seen  the 
light  in  books  oT  selections— none  of  them  have  beea  worA  threadbare  by 
use,  or  have  lost  JtJo^ir  freshness  by  the  pupil's  familiarity  with  them  in  the 
school  readers.  1' 

It  teaet»«s  the_4jupij/^j0w  the  selections  are  to  pe  studied,  soliciting  and 
vi exactingv  his  judgment  at  every  step  of  the  waiy  which  lead#^rom  the 
Yauthor'sdi«tiaa,jLip*n rough  his  style  apd  thought  to  the  author  nimeelf, 

V  and  in  many  otherNyays  it  places  the  pupil  on  the  best  possible  footing  with 

V  the  authors  whose  acquaintance  it  is  his  business,  as  well  as  his  pleasure,  to 
■^make.  \     \    >  i 

>j        Short  estinSates  tafJAe  leading  authors,  made  by  the  best  English  and 
VxAmerican  critics,  have  beeti  inserted,  most  of  them  contemporary  with  us. 

The  author  has  endeavored  to  make  a  practical,  common-sense  text- 
book: one  that  woul^  so  educate  the  student  that  he.wahMJinow  and 
enjoy  good  literature.      /         "  '  '  if 

"  I  find  the  hoolv  in  its  treatment  of  English  liteniture  superior  To  any  other  I 
have  exap|nii,)ed.  Its  main  feature,  which  should  be  the  le.iding  one  of  all  i^imilar 
books,  is  t&ai  it  is  a  moans  to  an  end,  siinply  a  guide-book  to  the  study  of  English 
literature/  Too  many  students  in  the  paj't'have  studied,  not  the  literature  of  the 
En^lislyTanguage,  but  some  authors  opinion  of  that  literatui*e.  I  know  from  ex- 
perience that  your  metfeod  of  treatment  will  prove  an  eminently  successful  one." — 
James  H.  iShults,  Prin.  of  the  West  High  School,  Cleveland,  0. 


Clark  &  MAYNARD,  Publishers.  New  York. 


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LANGUAGE  LESSONS:  GRAMMAR-COMPOSITICN. 


A  COMPLETE  COURSE  IX  TWO  BOOKS  ONLY. 


The    Best   and   the   Cheapest. 


I.  Graded  Lessons  in  English. — An  Elementary  English 

Grammab,  consisting  of  One  Hundred  Practical  Lessons,  carefully  graded 
and  adapted  to  the  class  room.    164  pages,  16mo.    Bound  in  linen. 

II.  Higher  Lessons  in  English.  —  A  Work  on  English 
Grammar  and  Composition,  in  which  the  science  of  the  Language  is  made 
tributary  to  the  art  of  expression,  A  course  of  Practical  Lessons,  carefully 
graded,  and  adapted  to  e very-day  use  in  the  school  room.  316  pages,  16mo. 
Bound  in  cloth. 
The  two  books  completely  cover  the  ground  of  Grammar  and  Composition, 

from  the  time  the  scholar  usually  begins  the  study  until  it  is*  finished  in  the  High 

School  or  Academy. 

A  Text-Book  on  Rhetoric. — Supplementing  the  development 
of  the  Science  with  exhaustive  practice  in  composition,  A  course  of  Prac- 
tical Lessons  adapted  for  use  in  High  Schools  and  Academics,  and  in  the 
Lower  Classes  of  Colleges.  By  Brainekd  Kellogg,  A.M.,  Professor  of  the 
English  Language  and  Literature  in  the  Brooklyn  Collegiate  and  Polytechnic 
Institute,  and  one  of  the  authors  of  Keed  &  Kellogg's  "Graded  Lessons  va. 
English"  and  "Higher  Lessons  in  English."    276  pages,  12mo. 

A  Text-Book  on  English  Literature. — With  copious  Extracts 
from  the  leading  authors,  English  and  American,  With  full  instructions  as 
to  the  method  in  which  these  are  to  be  studied.  Adapted  for  use  in  Colleges, 
High  Schools,  Academies,  etc.  By  Brainehd  Kellogg,  A.M.,  author  of  "A 
Test-Book  of  Rhetoric,"  and  one  of  the  authors  of  Eeed  &  Kellogg's  "  Graded 
Lessons  in  English  "  and  "  Higher  Lessons  in  English."  Handsomely  printed, 
12mo,  484  pages. 

Word-Lessons :  A  Complete  Speller.— Adapted  for  use  in  the 

Higher  Primary,  Intermediate,  and  Grammar  Grades.  Designed  to  teach  the 
correct  Spelling,  Pronunciation,  and  Use  of  such  words  only  as  are  mo?t 
common  in  current  literature,  and  as  are  most  likely  to  be  Misspelled,  Mis- 
pronounced or  Misused,  and  to  awaken  new  interest  in  the  study  of  Synnnyn-.s 
and  of  Word-Analysis.  By  Alonzo  Keed,  A.M.,  joint  author  of  "Graded 
Lessons  in  English "  and  "Higher  Lessons  in  English."    188  pages,  12mo. 


Higher  Lessons  in  English. 

A  WOEK 

OK 

English  Grammar 

AND 

COMPOSITION, 

In  which  the  Science  of  the  Language  is  made  tributaky 
TO  the  Art  of  Expression. 

A  COITESE 

OF  PRACTICAL  LESSONS  CAREFULLY  GRADED,  AND  ADAPTED  TO  EVERY 

DAY  USE  IN  THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 

BT 

ALONZO  REED,  A.M., 

IiTSiaiuCTOB  IN  English  Grahx ar  in  the  Brooklyn  Collegiatb  and 
Polytechnic  Institctk, 

AND 

BRAraEED  KELLOGG,  A.M., 

Profkssor  or  the  English  Langpage  and  Literature  in  the  Brooklyn  Colleglate 
AND  Polytechnic  Institute. 


REYI8ED. 


NEW    YORK: 

Clark  &  Maynard,   Publishers, 

CbAl  &  Mechanical  Engineer. 


COPTRIGHT,   1877, 

By  AiiONzo  Beed  and  Braineed  EEixoae. 

COPTKIGHT,   18S5, 

By  Alonzo  Reed  and  Brainekd  Kbllogo. 


j?5U.tc., 


Press  of  J.  J.  Little  &  Co., 
Nos.  lo  to  20  Astor  Place,  New  York. 


GXFt 


Rsxs 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  a  scientific  and  practical  knowledge  of 
one's  vemacular  is  the  first  essential  of  an  education,  yet  the  position, 
in  our  common  school  curriculum,  of  grammar,  the  only  study  that 
aims  directly  to  lay  a  foundation  for  such  knowledge,  has  been  of  late 
desperately  assailed. 

Some  of  those  who  advocate  the  banishment  of  grammar  from  schools 
are  men  of  high  literary  culture,  whose  knowledge  of  general  grammar 
has  been  obtained  from  a  study  of  the  classical  languages,  and  whose 
facility  in  the  use  of  language  has  come  from  being  born  and  bred  in 
the  purest  literary  atmosphere.  Such  naturally  could  not  see  the 
advantage,  to  those  differently  educated  and  surrounded,  of  a  scientific 
standard  by  which  to  regulate  forms  of  expression. 

Others,  who  without  scholarly  acquirements  have  themselves  achieved 
a  certain  measure  of  literary  success,  fail  to  see  why  the  genius  of  young 
writers  should  be  hampered  by  the  restrictions  of  grammarians. 

The  regretful  recollection  of  months  and  years  spent  in  mechanical 
parsing  or  in  the  tiresome  and  unfruitful  memorizing  of  iron-clad 
rules  and  unapplied  principles  has  moved  many  more  to  decry  the 
study  of  English  grammar. 

Another  less  thoughtful  but  more  demonstrative  class  have  joined  in 
the  hue  and  cry  mainly  because  it  is  popular  to  denounce  the  old  and 
hail  the  new. 

The  majority,  however,  of  thoughtful,  practical  teachers  have  never 
doubted  the  utility  of  the  study  of  English  grammar.    Many,  it  is  true, 

159    r 


4  Preface. 

finding  their  text-books  burdened  with  non-essential  matter  and  defi- 
cient in  practical  work,  have  dropped  them,  or  else  have  themselves 
assumed  the  labor  of  daily  revision. 

To  meet  the  pressing  demands  of  such  educators  this  series  of  Lessons 
in  English  has  been  prepared. 

From  our  own  extended  experience  and  from  the  nature  of  things, 
we  are  convinced  that  the  oral  instruction,  the  composition  writing, 
and  the  studies  in  literature  that  are  offered  as  substitutes  for  the  study 
of  grammar,  invaluable  as  they  are  in  themselves,  fall  far  short  of  their 
greatest  possible  good,  are  more  or  less  loose  and  erratic,  unless  based 
upon  the  science  of  language,  upon  those  principles  that  underlie  the 
structure  of  the  English  sentence  ;  and  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
study  of  technical  grammar,  divorced,  as  it  too  generally  has  been, 
from  practical  language  work,  although  not  without  value  as  a  mental 
discipline,  is  hardly  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  common  school. 

The  aim  of  this  work  is  to  make  the  Science  of  the  Language,  of 
which  all  the  essentials  are  thoroughly  presented,  tributary  to  the 
Art  of  Expression.  Every  principle  learned  by  the  pupil  is  fixed  in 
his  memory  and,  above  all,  in  his  practice  by  varied  and  exhaustive 
drill  in  composition.  He  is  constantly  required  to  compose  sentences, 
to  arrange  and  rearrange  their  parts,  to  contract,  expand,  punctuate, 
and  criticise  them — the  analysis  furnishing  hira  materials  for  the 
synthesis,  and  the  synthesis  supplementing  the  analysis.  Even  if  the 
study  of  grammar  were  only  to  lodge  in  the  memory  the  forms  and 
principles  of  the  language,  we  contend  that  this  could  be  done  effect- 
ively only  by  work  in  composition — this,  and  this  only,  can  make  them 
permanent  possessions. 

We  begin  with  the  sentence,  because  the  sentence  is  the  unit  of  dis- 
course, because  words  can  be  classified  only  from  their  function  in 
the  sentence,  and  because  the  pupil  should,  from  the  outset,  see  that 
what  determines  the  words  in  the  sentence  and  the  sentence  itself  is 


Preface,  5 

the  thought.  Rules  for  Punctuation  are  given  where  they  are  needed, 
since  the  marks  are  as  much  a  part  of  the  sentence  as  are  the  words 
themselves — the  sentence  is  not  written  till  it  is  punctuated. 

The  large  space  allotted  to  the  sentence  is  necessary,  because  (1)  the 
oflBices  and  relations  of  words  are  many  and  diverse,  and  they  must  be 
mastered  by  analysis  and  synthesis  before  the  inflections  can  be  under- 
stood ;  (2)  because  Arrangement  must  be  studied,  and  the  relations  of 
clauses  in  the  complex  and  the  compound  sentence  must  be  understood 
in  order  to  secure  variety,  force,  and  clearness  of  expression  ;  and  (3^  be- 
cause, in  reading,  the  pupil  cannot  express  the  subordination  of  the 
dependent  clause  to  the  independent  and  the  co-ordination  of  in- 
dependent clauses,  till  he  can  detect  the  relation  of  these  elements 
at  a  glance. 

In  the  supplementary  Lessons  on  Composition  the  pupil  is  thoroughly 
drilled  in  the  use  of  the  marks  of  Punctuation,  is  made  familiar  with 
the  cardinal  virtues  of  Style,  and  is  led  on  to  the  grouping  of  sentences 
into  Paragraphs  and  of  Paragraphs  into  Themes,  to  the  construction 
of  Frameworks  for  Themes,  and  to  Letter-Writing. 

Many  years  of  experience  in  teaching  grammar,  both  with  and  with- 
out Diagrams,  have  convinced  us  of  their  great  utility.  But,  while 
believing  that  no  teacher  or  pupil,  once  familiar  with  them,  will 
willingly  dispense  with  their  aid,  we  wish  to  say  that  they  form  no 
vital  part  of  the  work.     They  could  be  omitted  without  break. 

The  sentences  given  for  analysis  are  largely  quotations,  but  they  will 
not  always  be  recognized.  To  suit  them  to  the  purpose  in  hand,  many 
of  them  had  to  be  changed  ;  and,  when  changed,  they  could  not  be 
marked  as  quoted.  We,  therefore,  have  given  authors'  names  only  in 
particular  Lessons  headed  "  Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Review." 

We  have  preferred  to  make  no  departures  from  the  ordinary  classi- 
fication and  nomenclature,  unless,  as  it  seemed  to  us,  some  practical 
good  would  accrue  to  the  pupil. 


6  Preface. 

We  wish  to  add  that,  while  shunning  no  difficulties  that  lay  in  our 
path,  we  have  not  turned  out  of  our  path  to  encounter  any.  This  book 
was  not  written  to  air  crotchets  or  to  resolve  grammatical  puzzles,  but 
for  every-day  use  in  the  school-room. 

"  Higher  Lessons  in  English,"  while  in  press,  was  criticised  by  the 
distinguished  philologist,  Prof.  Francis  A.  March  of  Lafayette  College, 
Easton,  Pa.,  and  to  him  we  are  indebted  for  many  most  valuable 
suggestions. 


Suggestions  to  the    Teachei\. 

Though  professing  to  be  a  complete  grammar,  this  work  is  not  intended 
for  beginners.  In  preparing  it,  we  have  supposed  the  pupil  to  be  already 
thoroughly  familiar  with  "  Graded  Lessons  in  English  "  or  its  equivalent. 
Guard,  then,  against  introducing  "  Higher  Lessons  "  too  early  into  the 
course  of  study. 

Those  who  desire  a  brief  course  in  technical  grammar  are  referred  to  that 
outlined  in  the  "General  Reviews,"  pp.  147,  186,  219,  220,  228,  229,  264, 


PuBLisHEi^s'    Note. 

The  unprecedented  success  attending  "Higher  Lessons  in  English" 
during  its  few  years  of  publication  has  necessitated  new  electrotype  plates. 
The  publishers  have  taken  this  opportunity  to  enlarge  the  type  and  to  open 
the  page.  The  authors  have  also  carefully  revised  their  work,  and  have 
made  some  valuable  additions  and  improvements. 

Teachers,  however,^ will  find  no  difficulty  in  using  the  two  editions  in  the 
same  class.    The  Lesson  Numbers  have  not  been  changed. 


Alphabetic   Index. 


PAOBS. 

Abbreviations 30,  31 

Absolute  Phrase. .  76,  86,  127,  141 

Adjective,  The 34,  35 

**         Classes 158-159 

"         Clauses 105-108 

**  **  Composi- 

tion.. 109-111 
'♦  Composition  . .  36-38 
"  Construction  . .  159-163 
**         Modification — 

Comparison..  220-227 

Adjective  or  Adverb  ? 61 

Adverb,  The 38-39 

♦«      Classes 164-166 

"      Clauses 111-118 

"  **     Composi- 

tion... 118-122 

♦*      Composition 40 

♦*      Construction 166-169 

*'      Modification    — 

Comparison. .  220-227 

Alphabet,  The 19 

Analysis 21 

Analysis — Additional   Se- 
lections  148,  269-276 

Antecedent 152 

Apostrophe,  Rules 69,  192, 

208-213,  282 
Arrangement..  93-102, 109, 120, 128 


PAQEg. 

Articles 159-161 

As.  .61,  63,  113,  115,  151,  175,  177 

Both . . .  and 49 

Bad  or  badly  ? 63,  64 

Brackets,  Rule 282 

But 132,  134,  170,  175,  184 

Capital  Letters,  Rules. . .    22,  27- 
29,  51,  131,  277 

Clauses,  Kinds 105,  111, 

123,  132,  133,  139 

Colon,  Rules 280 

Comma,  Rules.  .44,  50,  67,  68,  77, 

87, 109, 118, 119, 127, 128, 135, 

136,  277,  278 

Complements 57 

'*      Attribute 58-61, 

74,  80,  125,  126 

*'      Modified 57 

♦*      Object...  57, 76,  80, 125 

"      Objective...  62,  63, 74, 82 

Conjunction,  The. ... .  .47-49,  174 

Classes 174-176 

Connected    Terms,   Com- 
position    ...      50-53 

Connectives 175-180 

"     Construction. . .  180-182 

Consonants ,      18-20 

Contraction 102-104, 

120-122,  129,  139 


8 


Alphabetic  Index. 


PAGES. 

Copula. 58,  59 

Dash,  Rules 87,  88,  135,  281 

Diagram,  The 22 

Each  other ^  One  another..  67,  215 
Exclamation  Point,  Rule. .  51,  277 

Factitive  Object 62,  74,  82 

i^or— introductory 81,  243,  244 

Grammar,  English 16 

Hand  in  hand 55 

Hyphen,  Rules 282 

In  or  into  ? 172 

If 117,  118,  175,  176,  177 

Independent    Words  and 

Phrases 85-87 

Infinitives 78-83 

*'        Composition,.      81,85 

•'        Expansion 141,  142 

"        without  to 85 

^^ Intended  to  haw  called  ".  257 

Interjection,  The 47,  48 

Interrogation  Point 89,  277 

Irregular  Verbs 236-240 

7s  being  huilt 247,  248 

It 82,  126,128 

It  is  me,  etc 217 

Language,    Natural    and 

Word 15,16 

Lest 175,  176,  177 

Letters,  Sounds  of 18-20 

Letter-Writting 306-314 

Many  a 76,  112 

Miscellaneous  Errors 157,  163, 

168,  169,  182,  183,  218 
Miscellaneous  Exercises  in 

Review. . .  .55,  90-92,  142-144 
Mine,  thine,  etc 214 


Modifications  of  Parts  of 

Speech 187 

Modifier,  A 35 

Noun,  The 25,26 

Noun,  Classes 149,  150 

*'      Clauses 123-127 

"  '*  Composition.  127-131 

'*      Declension 213 

Nouns  as  Modifiers 65-70 

Nouns  and  Pronouns,  Case        203, 
205-213 
Nouns  and  Pronouns,  Gen- 
der   197-202 

Nouns  and  Pronouns,  Num- 
ber   188-196 

Nouns  and  Pronouns,  Per- 
son   202-204 

Oh,  0 51 

Object,  The 57,  164,  165 

Only 90,  167 

Paragraph,  The 294-300 

Parenthesis,  Marks  of.  .88,  135,  282 

Parsing 34,  56,  207,  208,  224, 

252,  253 

Participles 72-76,  248 

"        Composition. .      77,  78 
"        Expansion....  141 

Period,  Rules 22,  27,  277 

Phrases 41-43,  49,  52,  127 

'*      Composition 44-46 

Possessive  Forms 69,  208-213 

Predicate,  The.  17,  21,  47,  48,  58,  59 
*'         Compound. . . .      47-49 
**         Modified  or  Log- 
ical   38 

Preposition,  The.  .42,  43,  169,  170 


Alphabetic  Index. 


PAGES. 

Preposition  Construction. .  170-173 

Pronoun,  The 25,  26,  151 

'  *    Case-Forms  -  Con^ 

struction ...  65,  216-218 

Classes 149-152 

"        Construction...  153-158 

Declension 214-216 

"        Person,  Number, 
and    Gender — 
Construction..  200-202, 
260-268 
Questions,  Direct  and  In- 
direct   131 

Quotations,  Direct  and  In- 
direct   131 

Quotation  Marks,  Rule. . .  130, 131, 

282 
Review,    Capital    Letters 

and  Punctuation 53,  44, 

92,  283,  284 

Review,  General— Schemes 147, 

186,  219,  220,  228,  229,  264,  265 

Review  Questions. .  .24,  41,  56,  71, 

104,  144-146,  185,  186,  265-268 

Semicolon,  Rules 135,  136,  279 

Sentence,  The 16,  17,  20 

Sentences,  Classes 88,  89,  133 

«*  Complex 105-132 

Compound....  132-138 

Since 112,  175,  177 

Spelling,  Rules 222 

Style,  Qualities 284  294 

Subject,  The. . .  .17,  21,  47,  48,  75, 
80,  124 

'  *    Compound 47-49 

•'    Modified  or  Logical  35 


PAGES. 

Subject  or  Complement?. . .        60 

Subjunctive  Mode 235, 243, 

246,  255,  256 

Tlian 113,114 

That 114, 117, 

124,  155,  175,  176,  178,  184 

The... the 113,  114 

There 86,  87 

Composition- Writmg 301-305 

Thought,  A 16,  17 

To  with  the  Infinitive.  .79,  243,  244 

Verb,  The 32,  33 

"      Classes 163-165 

"      Conjugation 236-249 

"      Mode  and  Tense. ..  234-235 
'*      Mode    and    Tense 

Forms— Analysis.  249,  250 
*'  Tense  Forms — Mean- 
ing   250-252 

**  Mode  and  Tense 
Forms  — Construc- 
tion    254-259 

*'  Number  and  Person.  234,  235 
"■  Number  and  Person 

—Construction  . .  260,  203 

"  Voice 229-233 

Vowels 18-20 

Was  lost  sight  of 233 

What 107,  108,  151,  183 

WJien 108,  112,  175,  176,  178 

Where 108,  118,  175,  176,  118 

While ...112,  175,  179 

Will  and  would,  shall  and 

should 258,  259 

Fes  and  iVb 165 


Classfied    Index. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  pages.) 


Part      I.— The  Sentence  and  Classes  of  Words 15-148 

Part    II.— Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided 149-186 

Part  III.— Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech 187-268 

Part  rV.— Composition— Supplementary 277-314 

Letters, 

Sounds  of  Letters,  18-20.  Classes  of  Letters,  18-20.  Capital  Let- 
ters, 22,  27-29,  51,  131,  277.     Rules  for  Spelling,  222. 

The  Noun, 

The  Noun,  25,  26.  Classes,  149,  150.  Modifications,  187,  188.— 
Number,  188-196  ;  Gender,  197-202  ;  Person,  202-204 ;  Case,  203, 
205,  206,  208-210.  Declension,  213.  Construction  of  Possessive 
Forms— Cautions,  69,  210-213. 

See  also  **  Scheme,"  page  219. 

The  Pronoun, 

The  Pronoun,  25,  26.     Classes,  149-152.     Modifications  (same  as  for 
the  noun).     Declension,  214-216.     Construction  of  Pronouns — Cau- 
tions.— Use  of  the  different  Pronouns,  153-157  ;  Number,  Gender,  and 
Person— Agreement,  196,  200-202,  261-263  ;  Case  Forms,  65,  216-218. 
See  also  **  Scheme,"  page  220. 

The  Adjective, 

The  Adjective,  34,  35.     Classes,  158,  159.      Comparison,  220-224. 
Construction  of  Adjectives — Cautions. — Position,  Choice,  Use,  36, 
37,  63,  64, 159-163  ;  Degree  Forms  and  Number  Forms,  225-227. 
See  also  *'  Scheme,''  page  228. 


12  Classified  Index. 


The  Verb, 

The  Verb,  3?,  83.  Participles,  73-78.  Infinitives,  78-85.  Classes, 
163-165.  Moditlcations.— Voice,  239-233  ;  Mode,  Tense,  Number,  and 
Person,  233-235.  Irregular  Verbs,  237-240.  Conjugation,  236,  241-249. 
Compound  Forms— Analysis,  349,  350.  Tense  Forms — Meaning,  350- 
252.  Construction  of  Verbs — Cautions. — Mode  and  Tense  Forms, 
354-259  ;  Number  and  Person  Forms— Agreement,  36,  33,  360-363. 
See  also  "  Scheme,  "  page  364. 

The  Adverb, 

The  Adverb,  38,  39.  Classes,  164-166.  Comparison,  333,  224. 
Construction  of  Adverbs — Cautions.— Choice,  Position,  Use,  40, 
166-169  ;  Degree  Forms,  225-227. 

The  Conjunction, 

The  Conjunction,  47-49.  Classes,  174-176.  Uses  of  Different  Con- 
nectives, 177-180.     Construction  of  Connectives— Cautions,  180-183. 

The  Preposition, 

The  Preposition,  41-43,  169-171.  Construction  of  Prepositions- 
Cautions,  172,  173. 

The  Interjection f  47,  48,  51. 
rarsing,  34,  56,  207,  208,  224,  252,  353. 
Summary  of  Utiles  of  Syntaoc,  315,  316. 

JPunctuati  on. 

Period,  23,  37,  (Summary)  377.  Interrogation  Point,  89,  131,  (Sum- 
mary) 277.  Exclamation  Point,  51,  89,  (Summary)  277.  Comma,  44, 
50,  51,  67,  68,  77,  87,  88,  109,  118,  119,  127,  128,  131,  135,  136,  (Sum- 
mary) 277,  278.  Semicolon,  135,  136,  (Summary)  279.  280.  Colon, 
131,  (Summary)  280.  Dash,  87,  88,  135,  (Summary)  281.  Marks  of 
Parenthesis,  88,  135,  (Summary)  282.  Brackets,  282.  Quotation 
Marks,  130,  131,  282.  Apostrophe,  69,  192,  208-213,  (Summary)  282. 
Hyphen,  332. 


Classified  Index, 


The  Sentence, 

The  Sentence,  16,  17,  20. 

Subject,— 17,  21  ;  Compound  Subj.,  47,  48  ;  Subj.  Phrase,  75,  80  ; 
Subj.  Clause,  133,  124. 

Predicate,— 17,  21,  58,  59  ;  Compound  Pred.,  47,  48. 

Object  Complement,— 57,  58  ;  Object  Phrase,  76,  80  ;  Object  Clause, 
125. 

Attribute  Complement, — 58-61  ;  Attribute  Phrase,  74,  80  ;  Attribute 
Clause,  125,  126. 

Objective  Complement,— 62,  63  ;  Objective  Comp.  Phrase,  74,  82,  83. 

Adjective  Modifiers. — Adjectives,  34,  85  ;  Nouns,  65-67  ;  Phrases, 
41-43,  73,  79.     Clauses,  105-108,  126. 

Adverb  Modifiers.— Adverbs,  38,  39  ;  Nouns,  69-71  ;  Phrases,  41-43, 
79,  80;  Clauses,  111-118. 

Connectives.— Conjunctions,  47,  48,  116-118,  124,  132-135,  174-182; 
Relative  Pronouns,  105-108,  151,  175  ;  Conjunctive  Adverbs,  108, 
112-115,  175,  176. 

Independent  Parts,  85-87. 

Classes  of  Sentences  and  Clauses,  88-90,  183. 

Composition. — Adjectives,  3'>-38  ;  Adverbs,  40  ;  Prep.  Phrases, 
44-46  ;  Connected  Terms,  50-53  ;  Complements,  68-65  ;  Noun  Modi- 
fiers, 67-69  ;  Participles,  77-78  ;  Infinitives,  84,  65  ;  Independent 
Parts,  87,  88  ;  Arrangement,  86,  37,  40,  45,  93-102,  109,  120,  12^ ; 
Contraction,  102-104, 120-122,  129, 130, 136,137;  Expansion,  109-111, 
141,  142. 

See  also  "  Scheme,"  page  147. 

Supplementary  Composition, 

Capital  Letters  and   Punctuation,  277-284  ;   Style,  284-294  ;    The 
Paragraph,  294-300  ;  Analysis  of  the  Theme,  297-302. 
How  to  Write  a  Composition,  302-304. 
Letter-Writing,  306-314. 


,//^Z^4^^-yC<^  CX^'^^-^-^^^^^^^^^ 


Trdyx^^^^t-^'^^^^^^^'l^  ^  PrC^tyuV". 


LESiOli  4. 

A    TALK    ON    LANGUAGE. 

We  wish  to  talk  with  you  to-daj  about  a  language  that  we  never 
learned  from  a  grammar  or  a  book  of  any  kind.  Nor  was  it  ever 
taught  us  by  parent  or  by  teacher.  We  came  by  it  naturally  and  use 
it  without  thinking  of  it. 

It  is  a  universal  language,  and  so  needs  no  interpreter.  People  of 
all  lands  and  of  all  degrees  of  culture  use  it;  even  the  brute  animals 
in  some  measure  understand  it. 

This  Natural  language  is  the  language  of  cries,  laughter,  and  tones  ; 
the  language  of  the  eyes,  the  nose,  the  mouth,  the  whole  face;  the 
language  of  gestures  and  postures. 

The  child's  cry  tells  of  its  wants  ;  its  sob,  of  grief ;  its  scream,  of 
pain ;  its  laugh,  of  delight.  The  boy  raises  his  eyebrows  in  surprise 
and  his  nose  in  disgust,  leans  forward  in  expectation,  draws  back  in 
fear,  makes  a  fist  in  anger,  and  calls  or  drives  away  his  dog  simply  by 
the  tone  in  which  he  speaks. 

But  feelings  and  desires  are  not  the  only  things  we  wish  to  communi- 
cate. Early  in  life  we  begin  to  acquire  knowledge  and  learn  to  think, 
and  then  we  feel  the  need  of  a  better  language. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  you  have  formed  an  idea  of  a  day ;  could  you 
express  this  by  a  tone,  a  look,  or  a  gesture? 

If  you  wish  to  tell  rae  tho  fact  that  yesterday  was  cloudy,  or  that  the 
days  are  shorter  in  uinter  than  in  summer,  you  would  find  it  wholly 
impossible  to  do  this  by  means  of  Natural  language. 

To  communicate,  then,  your  tlwughts,  or  even  the  mental  pictures  wc 
have  called  ideas,  you  need  a  language  more  nearly  perfect. 

This  language  is  made  up  of  words. 

These  words  you  learn  from  your  mothers,  and  so  Word  language  is 
your  mother-tongue.  You  learn  them,  also,  from  your  friends  and 
teachers,  your  playmates  and  companions,  and  you  learn  them  by 
reading;  for  words,  as  you  know,  may  be  written  as  well  as  spoken. 


1 6  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

This  Word  language  we  may,  from  its  superiority,  call  Language 
Proper. 

Natural  language,  as  was  said,  precedes  this  Word  language,  but 
gives  way  as  Word  language  comes  in  and  takes  its  place ;  yet  Natural 
language  may  be  used,  and  always  should  be,  to  assist  and  strengthen 
Word  language.  In  earnest  conversation  we  enforce  what  we  say  in 
words,  by  the  tone  in  which  we  utter  them,  by  the  varying  expression 
of  the  face,  and  by  the  movements  of  the  different  parts  of  the  body. 

The  look  or  the  gesture  may  even  dart  ahead  of  the  word,  or  it 
may  contradict  it,  and  so  convict  the  speaker  of  ignorance  or  de- 
ception. 

The  happy  union  of  the  two  kinds  of  language  is  the  charm  of  all 
good  reading  and  speaking.  The  teacher  of  elocution  is  ever  trying  to 
recall  the  pupil  to  the  tones,  the  facial  expression,  and  the  action,  so 
natural  to  him  in  childhood  and  in  animated  conversation. 

DEFINITION. — Language  Proper  consists  of  the  spoken  and 
written  words  used  to  communicate  ideas  and  ttiouglits. 

DEFINITION. — English  Grammar  is  the  science  which 
teaclies  tlie  forms,  uses,  and  relations  of  the  words  of  the  English 
language. 


Ltmm  % 

A    TALK    ON    THOUGHTS    AND    SENTENCES. 

To  express  a  thought  we  use  more  than  a  single  word,  and  the  words 
arranged  to  express  a  thought  we  call  a  sentence. 

But  there  was  a  time  when,  through  lack  of  words,  we  compressed 
our  thought  into  a  single  word.  The  child  says  to  his  father,  up,  mean- 
ing, Take  me  up  into  your  lap ;  or,  booJc,  meaning,  This  thing  in  my  Jiand 
is  a  book. 

These  first  words  always  deal  with  the  things  that  can  be  learned 
by  the  senses ;  they  express  the  child's  ideas  of  these  things. 

We  have  spoken  of  thoughts  and  sentences ;  let  us  see  now  whether 
we  can  find  out  just  what  a  thought  is,  and  what  a  sentence  is. 


A    Talk  on  Sounds  and  Letters.  ly 

As  a  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  thought, — the  body, 
of  which  the  thought  is  the  soul, — and  so  is  something  that  we  can 
hear  or  see,  while  a  thought  is  not,  let  us  try  to  find  out  what  a  thought 
is  by  looking  at  a  sentence. 

In  any  such  sentence  as  this,  Spiders  spin,  something  is  said,  or  as- 
serted, about  something.  Here  it  is  said,  or  asserted,  of  the  insects, 
spiders,  that  they  spin. 

The  sentence,  then,  consists  of  two  parts, — the  name  of  that  of  which 
something  is  said,  and  that  which  is  said  of  it. 

The  first  of  these  parts  we  call  the  Subject  of  the  sentence;  the 
second,  the  Predicate. 

Now,  if  the  sentence,  composed  of  two  parts,  expresses  the  thought, 
there  must  be  in  the  thought  two  parts  to  be  expressed.  And  there 
are  two;  viz.,  something  of  which  we  think,  and  that  which  we  think 
about  it.  In  the  thought  expressed  by  Spiders  spin,  the  insects,  spiders, 
are  the  something  of  which  we  think,  and  their  spinning  is  what  we 
think  of  them.  In  the  sentence  expressing  this  thought,  the  word 
spiders  names  that  of  which  we  think,  and  the  word  spin  tells  what  we 
think  about  spiders. 

Not  every  group  of  words  is  necessarily  a  sentence,  because  it  may 
not  be  the  expression  of  a  thought.  Spiders  spinning  is  not  a  sen- 
tence. There  is  nothing  in  this  expression  to  show  that  we  have  formed 
a  judgment,  i.e.,  that  we  have  really  made  up  our  minds  that  spiders 
do  spin.     The  spinning  is  not  asserted  of  the  spiders. 

Soft  feathers,  The  shining  sun  are  not  sentences,  and  for  similar 
reasons.  Feathers  are  soft,  The  sun  shines  are  sentences.  Here  the 
asserting  word  is  supplied,  and  something  is  said  of  something  else.^ 

The  shines  sun  is  not  a  sentence ;  for,  though  it  contains  the  asserting 
word  shines,  the  arrangement  is  such  that  no  assertion  is  made,  and  so 
no  thought  is  expressed. 


LESSOU  3. 

A    TALK    ON    SOUNDS    AND    LETTERS. 

We  have  already  told  you  that  in  expressing  our  ideas  and  thoughts 
we  use  two  kinds  of  words,  spoken  words  and  written  words. 
2 


1 8  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

We  learned  the  spoken  words  first.  Mankind  spoke  long  before  they 
wrote  Not  until  people  wished  to  communicate  with  those  at  a  dis- 
tance, or  had  thought  out  something  worth  handing  down  to  after- 
times,  did  they  need  to  write. 

But  speaking  was  easy.  The  air,  the  lungs,  and  the  organs  of  the 
throat  and  mouth  were  at  hand.  The  first  cry  was  a  suggestion. 
Sounds  and  noises  were  heard  on  every  side,  provoking  imitation, 
and  the  need  of  speech  for  the  purposes  of  communication  was  impera- 
tive. 

Spoken  words  are  made  up  of  sounds.  There  are  over  forty  sounds 
in  the  English  language.  The  ditt'erent  combinations  of  these  give 
us  all  the  words  of  our  spoken  tongue.  That  you  may  clearly  under- 
stand these  sounds,  we  will  tell  you  something  about  the  human 
voice. 

In  talking,  the  air  driven  out  from  your  lungs  beats  against  two  flat 
muscles,  stretched,  like  bands,  across  the  top  of  the  windpipe,  and 
causes  them  to  vibrate  up  and  down.  This  vibration  makes  sound. 
Take  a  thread,  put  one  end  between  your  teeth,  hold  the  other  with 
thumb  and  finger,  draw  it  tight  and  strike  it,  and  you  will  understand 
how  voice  is  made.  The  shorter  the  string,  or  the  tighter  it  is  drawn, 
the  faster  will  it  vibrate,  and  the  higher  will  be  the  pitch  of  the  sound. 
The  more  violent  the  blow,  the  farther  will  the  string  vibrate,  and  the 
louder  will  be  the  sound.  Just  so  with  these  vocal  bands  or  cords. 
The  varying  force  with  which  the  breath  strikes  them,  and  their  differ- 
ent tensions  and  lengths  at  different  times  explain  the  different  degrees 
of  loudness  and  the  varying  pitch  of  the  voice. 

If  the  voice  thus  produced  comes  out  through  the  mouth  held  well 
open,  a  class  of  sounds  is  formed  which  we  call  vowel  sounds. 

But  if  the  voice  is  held  back  or  obstructed  by  the  palate,  tongue, 
:eeth,  or  lips,  one  kind  of  the  sounds  called  consonant  sounds  is  made. 
If  the  hreath  is  driven  out  without  voice,  and  is  held  hack  by  these 
same  parts  of  the  mouth,  the  other  kind  of  consonant  sounds  is 
formed. 

The  written  word  is  made  up  of  characters,  or  letters,  which  repre- 
sent to  the  eye  these  sounds  that  address  the  ear. 

You  are  now  prepared  to  understand  us  when  we  say  that  vowels 
are  the  letters  that  stand  for  the  open  sounds  of  the  voice,  and  that 


A    Talk  on  Sounds  and  Letters.  19 

consonants  are  the  letters  that  stand  for  the  sounds  made  by  the 
obstructed  voice  and  the  obstructed  breath. 

The  alphabet  of  a  language  is  a  complete  list  of  its  letters.  A  per- 
fect alphabet  would  have  one  letter  for  eaoh  sound,  and  only  one. 

Our  alphabet  is  imperfect  in  at  least  these  three  ways: — 

1.  Some  of  the  letters  ar*?  suparfluous  ;  c  standrf  for  the  sound  of  s  or 
of  k,  as  in  city  and  can  ;  q  has  the  sound  of  k,  as  in  quit ;  and  x  that 
of  ks,  gZy  or  z,  as  in  expel,  exist,  and  Xenophon. 

2.  Combinations  of  letters  sometimes  represent  single  sounds ;  as,  th, 
in  thine,  th  in  thin,  ng  in  sing,  and  sh  in  shut. 

3.  Some  letters  stand  each  for  many  sounds.  Twenty-three  letters 
represent  over  forty  sounds.  Every  vowel  does  more  than  single  duty; 
e  stands  for  two  sounds,  as  in  mete  and  met;  i  for  two,  as  in  pine  and 
pin  ;  0  for  three,  as  in  note,  not,  and  move  ;  u  for  four,  as  in  tube,  tub, 
full,  and  fur  ;  a  for  six,  as  'vafate,  fat,  far,  fall,  fast,  and  fare. 

Wis  a  vowel  when  it  unites  with  a  preceding  vowel  to  represent  a 
vowel  sound,  and  g^  is  a  vowel  when  it  has  the  sound  of  i,  as  in  now,  by, 
boy,  newly.  W  and  y  are  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  or 
syllable. 

The  various  sounds  of  the  several  vowels  and  even  of  the  same  vowel 
are  caused  by  the  different  shapes  which  the  mouth  assumes.  These 
changes  in  its  cavity  produce,  also,  the  two  sounds  that  unite  in  each  of 
the  compounds,  ou,  oi,  ew,  and  in  the  alphabetic  i  and  0. 

1.  2.  1.  2. 

Vocal  Consonants.    Aspirates.  Vocal  Consonants.    Aspirates. 

b P 

d t 

g k 

h 

3 ch 

1 


r 

th            ... 

th 

(in  thine) 
V 

(in  thin) 
f 

y 

z  (in  zone). . 

s 

z  (in  azure). 

sh 

The  consonants  in  column  1  represent  the  sounds  made  by  the  ob- 
structed voice;    those  in  column  2,   except  h  (which    represents    a 


20  The  Sentence  and  'the  Parts  of  Speech. 

mere  forcible  breathing),    represent    those    made  by  the  obstructed 
ireath. 

The  letters  are  mostly  in  pairs.  Now  note  that  the  tongue,  teeth, 
lips,  and  palate  are  placed  in  the  same  relative  position  to  make  the 
sounds  of  both  letters  in  any  pair.  The  difference  in  the  sounds  of  the 
letters  of  any  pair  is  simply  this:  there  is  voice  in  the  sounds  of  the  let- 
ters in  column  1,  and  only  whisper  in  those  of  columw  3.  Give  the 
sound  of  any  letter  in  column  1,  as  h,  g,  v,  and  the  last  or  vanishing 
part  of  it  is  the  sound  of  the  other  letter  of  the  pair. 

To  the  Teacher.— Write  these  letters  on  the  board,  as  above,  and  drill  the  pnpils 
on  the  sounds  till  they  can  see  and  make  these  distinctions.  Drill  them  on  the 
vowels  also. 

In  closing  this  talk  with  you,  we  wish  to  emphasize  one  point 
brought  before  you.  Here  is  a  pencil,  a  real  thing  ;  we  carry  in 
memory  a  picture  of  the  pencil,  which  we  call  an  idea  ;  and  there 
are  the  two  words  naming  this  idea,  the  spoken  and  the  ivritten.  Learn 
to  distinguish  clearly  these  four  things. 

To  the  Teacher.— In  reviewing  these  three  Lessons,  put  particular  emphasis  on 
Lesson  2. 


LESSOR  4. 

ANALYSIS    AND    THE    DIAGRAM. 

To  the  Teacher.— 1^  the  pupils  have  been  through  "Graded  Lessons"  or  its 
equivalent,  some  of  the  following  Lessons  may  be  passed  over  rapidly. 

DEFINITION,— A  Sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  thouglit  in 
words. 

Direction. — Analyze  the  following  sentences : — 

Model.— Spiders  spin.  Why  is  this  a  sentence  9  Ans. — Because  it 
expresses  a  thought.  Of  what  is  something  thought?  Ans. — -'Spiders 
Which  word  tells  what  is  thought?    Ans. — -Spin. 

*  S/nclers,  standing  in  Roman,  names  our  idea  of  the  real  thing  ;  spin,  used  merely 
as  a  word,  is  in  Italics.  This  use  of  Italics  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  will  please  note 
here  and  elsewhere. 


Analysis  and  the  Diagram.  21 

1.  Tides  ebb.  4.  Carbon  burns.  7.  Leaves  tremble. 

2.  Liquids  flow.  5.  Iron  melts.  8.  Worms  crawl. 

3.  Steam  expands.  6.  Powder  explodes.      9.  Hares  leap. 

In  these  sentences  there  are,  as  you  have  learned,  two 
parts — the  Subject  and  the  Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— The  Subject  of  a  Sentence  names  that  of 
which  something  is  thought. 

DEFINITION.— The  Predicate  of  a  Sentence  tells  what  is 
thought. 

DEFINITION.— The  Analysis  of  a  Sentence  is  the  separation 
of  it  into  its  parts. 

Direction. — Analyze  these  sentences  : — 

Model.— Beavers  build.  This  is  a  sentence,  because  it  expresses  a 
thought.  Beavers  is  the  subject,  because  it  names  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  thought  ;  build  is  the  predicate,  because  it  tells  what  is 
thought. 

1.  Squirrels  climb.         4.  Heralds  proclaim.         7.  Corn  ripens. 

2.  Blood  circulates.        5.  Apes  chatter.  8.  Birds  twitter. 

3.  Muscles  tire.  6.  Branches  wave.  9.  Hearts  throb. 

XJxplanation.—I>ra,w  a  heavy  line  and  divide  it  thus  :— 

1 

Let  the  first  part  represent  the  siibject  of  a  sentence  ;  the  second,  the  pred- 
icate. 

If  you  write  a  word  over  the  first  part,  you  will  understand  that  this  word 
is  the  stiJbject  of  a  sentence.  If  you  write  a  word  over  the  second  part,  you 
will  understand  that  this  word  is  the  prediccUe  of  a  sentence. 

Lo7je         ,     cwiQuers 


You  see,  by  looking  at  this  expression,  that  Love  conquers  is  a  sentence, 
that  love  is  the  siibject,  and  conquers  the  predicate. 


22  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

These  figures,  made  up  of  straight  lines,  we  call  Diagrams, 

DEFINITION.— A  Diagram  is  a  picture  of  tlie  offices  and  rela- 
tions of  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence.  • 

TAxecXion.— Analyze  cmd  diagram  these  sentences  : — 

1.  Frogs  croak.  5.  Flies  buzz.  9.  Books  aid. 

2.  Hens  sit.  6.  Sap  ascends.  10.  Noise  disturbs. 

3.  Sheep  bleat.  7.  Study  pays.  11.  Hope  strengthens. 

4.  Cows  low.  8.  Buds  swell.  13.  Cocks  crow. 


LliSOl^  i. 

COMPOSITION— SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE. 

To  the  Teacher.— Let  some  of  the  pupils  write  their  sentences  on  the  board  while 
others  are  reading  theirs.    Then  let  the  work  be  corrected. 

Correct  any  expression  that  does  not  make  good  sense,  or  that  asserts  something  not 
strictly  true  ;  for  the  pupil  should  early  be  taught  to  think  accurately,  as  well  as  to 
write  and  speak  grammatically. 

Correct  all  mistakes  in  sj)elling,  and  in  the  use  of  capital  letters  and  the  period. 
Insist  on  neatness. 

CAPITAL  LETTER— RULE.— The  first  word  of  every  sentence 
must  begin  with  a  capital  letter, 

PERIOD — RULE, — A  period  must  be  placed  after  every  sen- 
tence that  simply  affirms,  denies,  or  commands. 

Direction. — Construct  sentences  hy  supplying  a  subject  to  each  of 
the  following  predicates  : — 

Ask  yourselves  the  questions,  What  tarnishes  ?  Who  sailed,  con- 
quered, etc.  ? 

1.  tarnishes.  6.  sailed.  11.  conquered. 

2.  capsize.  7.  descends.  12.  surrendered. 

3.  radiates.  8.  glisten.  13.  refines. 

4. sentence.  9.  absorb.  14. gurgle. 

5.  careen.  10.  corrode.  15.  murmur. 


Analysis, 


23 


Direction. — Construct  sentences  hy  supplying  a  predicate  to  each 
of  the  following  subjects  : — 

Ask  yourselves  the  question,  Glycerine  does  what  ? 


1.  Glycerine . 

2.  Yankees . 

3.  Tyrants . 

4.  Pendulums 

5.  Caesar . 

6.  Labor . 

7.  Chalk . 

8.  Nature . 


9.  Tempests  — 

10.  Seeds . 

11.  Heat . 

12.  Philosophers 

13.  Bubbles 

14.  Darkness  — 

15.  Wax . 

16.  Reptiles 


17.  Merchants 

18.  Meteors  — 

19.  Conscience 

20.  Congress  — 

21.  Life . 

22.  Vapors  — 

23.  Music 

34.  Pitch . 


To  the  Teeicher.—This  exercise  may  profitably  be  extended  by  supplying  several 
subjects  to  each  predicate,  and  several  predicates  to  each  subject. 


{.£§§011  §. 


ANALYSIS. 


The  predicate  sometimes  contains  more  than  one  word. 
Direction. — Analyze  and  diagram  as  in  Lesson  4. 


1.  Moisture  is  exhaled. 

2.  Conclusions  are  drawn. 

3.  Industry  will  enrich. 

4.  Stars  have  disappeared. 

5.  Twilight  is  falling. 

6.  Leaves  are  turning. 

7.  Sirius  has  appeared. 

8.  Constantinople  had  been  capt- 

ured. 

9.  Electricity  has  been  harnessed. 
10.  Tempests  have  been  raging. 


11.  Nuisances  should  be  abated. 

12.  Jerusalem  was  destroyed. 

13.  Light  can  be  reflected. 

14.  Rain  must  have  fallen. 

15.  Planets  have  been  discovered. 

16.  Palaces  shall  crumble. 

17.  Storms  may  be  gathering. 

18.  Essex  might  have  been  saved. 

19.  Caesar  could  have  been  crowned. 

20.  Inventors  may  be  encouraged. 


Direction. — Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  each 
sentence  in  Lessons  12  a/nd  17. 


24 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Look  first  for  the  word  that  asserts,  and  then,  by  putting  vjho  or 
what  before  this  predicate^  the  subject  may  easily  be  found. 

To  the  Teacher.— het  this  exercise  be  continued  till  the  pupils  can  readily  point 
out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  any  simple  declarative  sentence. 

When  this  can  be  done  promptly,  the  first  and  most  important  step  in  analysis  will 
have  been  taken. 


LESion  r. 


COMPOSITION— SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE. 


jyirection.— Make  at  least  ten  good  sentences  out  of  the  words  in  the 

three  columns  following 

:— 

The  helping  words  in 

column  2  must  be  prefixed  to  words  in  column 

3  to  make  complete  predicates.     Analyze  your  sentences. 

1 

2 

3 

Arts 

is 

progressing. 

Allen 

was 

tested. 

Life 

are 

command. 

Theories 

will 

prolonged. 

Science 

would 

released. 

Truth 

were 

falling. 

Shadows 

may  be 

burned. 

Moscow 

has  been 

measured. 

Raleigh 

have  been 

prevail. 

Quantity 

should  have  been 

lost. 

RE^ 

V^IEW^    QUESTIG 

NS. 

What  is  language  proper  ?  What  is  English  grammar  ?  What  is 
a  sentence  ?  What  are  its  two  parts  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  a  sen- 
tence ?  The  predicate  of  a  sentence  ?  The  analysis  of  a  sentence  ? 
What  is  a  diagram  ?  What  rule  has  been  given  for  the  use  of  capital 
letters  ?  For  the  period  ?  May  the  predicate  contain  more  than  one 
word  ?    Illustrate. 

To  the  Teacher.— Introduce  the  class  to  the  Parts  of  Speech  before  the  close  of 
tills  recitation.  See  "  Introductory  Hints,"  next  page.  The  matter  contained  in  the 
*'  Hints"  should  always  be  given  to  the  class  as  a  preparation  for  the  next  day's 
work. 


Classes  of  Words.  25 


LEiiOl  a, 

CLASSES    OF    WORDS. 
Nouns. 

Introductory  Hints.— "We  have  now  reached  the  point  where  we 
must  classify  the  words  of  our  language.  But  we  are  appalled  by 
their  number.  If  we  must  learn  all  about  the  forms  and  uses  of  a 
hundred  thousand  words  by  studying  them  one  by  one,  we  shall  die 
ignorant  of  English  grammar. 

But  may  we  not  deal  with  words  as  we  do  with  plants  ?  If  we  had 
to  study  and  name  each  leaf  and  stem  and  flower,  taken  singly,  we 
should  never  master  the  botany  even  of  our  garden-plats. 

But  God  has  made  things  to  resemble  one  another  and  to  differ  from 
one  another,  and  he  has  given  us  the  power  to  detect  resemblances  and 
differences,  so  we  are  enabled  to  group  things  that  have  like  qualities. 

From  certain  likenesses  in  form  and  structure,  we  put  certain  flowers 
together  and  call  them  roses  ;  from  other  likenesses,  we  get  another 
class  called  lilies  ;  from  others  still,  violets. 

Just  so  we  classify  trees  and  get  the  oak,  the  elm,  the  maple,  etc. 

The  myriad  objects  of  nature  fall  into  comparatively  few  classes. 
Studying  each  class,  we  learn  all  we  need  to  know  of  every  object  in  it. 

From  their  likenesses,  though  not  in  form,  we  classify  words.  We 
group  them  according  to  their  similarities  in  wse,  or  office^  in  the  sen- 
tence. Sorting  them  thus,  we  find  that  they  all  fall  into  eight  classes, 
which  we  call  Parts  of  Speech. 

We  find  that  many  words  name  things — are  the  names  of  things  of 
which  we  can  think  and  speak.  These  we  place  in  one  class  and  call 
them  Nouns  (Lat.  nomen,  a  name,  a  noun). 

Pronouns. 

Without  the  little  words  which  we  shall  italicize,  it  would  be  difficult 
for  one  stranger  to  ask  another,  '*  Can  you  tell  me  who  is  the  postmaster 
at  B  ? "  One  would  not  know  what  name  to  use  instead  of  you,  and 
the  other  would  not  recognize  the  name  in  the  place  of  me,  and  both 
would  be  puzzled  to  find  a  substitute  for  who. 


26 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


i,  you^  myy  me,  what,  we,  it,  he,  who,  him,  she,  them,  and  others,  are 
used  in  place  of  nouns,  and  are,  therefore,  called  Pronouns  (Lat.  pro, 
for,  and  nomen,  a  noun),  and  form  the  third  part  of  speech. 

By  means  of  these  handy  little  words  we  can  represent  any  or  every 
object  in  existence.  We  could  hardly  speak  or  write  without  them  now, 
they  so  frequently  shorten  the  expression  and  prevent  confusion  and 
repetition. 


DEFINITION.— A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything. 
DEFINITION.— A  Bronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun.* 

The  principal  office  of  nouns  is  to  name  the  things  of 
which  we  say  or  assert  something  in  the  sentence. 

Direction. — Write,  according  to  the  model,  the  names  of  things  that 
can  burn,  grow,  melt,  love,  roar,  or  revolve. 


Nouns. 
Wood 
Paper 
Oil 

Houses 
Jfodcl.-Coal 

Leaves 
Matches 
Clothes    -J 


'  bum  or  bums. 


Remark. — Notice 
that,  when  the  sub- 
ject adds  s  or  es  to 
denote  more  than 
one,  the  predicate 
does  not  take  s. 
Note  how  it  would 
sound  if  both  should 
add  s. 


Every  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  noun,  or  some  word  or 
words  used  as  a  noun.  But  not  every  noun  in  a  sentence  is 
a  subject. 

Direction. — Select  and  write  all  the  nouns  and  pronouns,  whether 
subjects  or  not,  in  the  sentences  given  in  Lesson  18. 
In  writing  them  observe  the  following  rules : — 


*  See  2d  foot-note,  Lesson  85. 


Capital  Letters.  27 


CAPITAL  LETTER- RULE. —l*roi>er,or  indivUlual^names 
and  words  derived  from  them  be^ln  with  capital  letters. 

PERIOD  and  CAPITAL  LETTER— RULE.— ^&6reviafiows 
generally    begin  with  capital  letters   and   are   always    followed 


by  the  period. 


CAPITAL   LETTERS. 

Direction. — From  the  following  words  select  and  write  in  one  column 
those  names  that  distinguish  individual  things  from  others  of  the  sams 
class,  and  in  another  column  the  words  derived  from  these  names  : — 

Observe  Rule  1,  Lesson  8. 

Ohio,  state,  Chicago,  france,  bostonian,  country,  england,  boston, 
milton,  river,  girl,  mary,  hudson,  williara,  britain,  miltonic,  city, 
englishman,  messiah,  platonic,  american,  deity,  bible,  book,  plate, 
christian,  broadway,  araerica,  jehovah,  christ,  british,  easter,  europe, 
man,  scriptures,  god. 

Direction. — Write  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  the  months 
of  the  year,  beginning  each  with  a  capital  letter  ;  and  write  the  names 
of  the  seasons  without  capital  letters. 

Bememlfer  that,  when  a  *class  name  and  a  distinguishing 
word  combine  to  make  one  individual  name,  each  word 
begins  with  a  capital  letter  ;  as,  Jersey  City. 

But,  when  the  distinguishing  word  can,  by  itself,  be  re- 
garded as  a  complete  name,  the  class  name  begins  witli  a 
small  letter  ;  as,  river  Rhine. 

Examples.— Long  Island,  Good  Friday,  Mount  Vernon,  Suspension 
Bridge,  New  York  city.  Harper's  Ferry,  Cape  May,  Bunker  Hill,  Red 
River,  Lake  Erie,  General  Jackson,  White  Mountains,  river  Thames, 
Astor  House,  steamer  Drew,  North  Pole. 

*  Dead  Sea  is  compoged  of  the  class  name  sea,  which  applies  to  all  sea^s,  and  tha 
word  Dead,  which  distinguishes  one  sea  from  all  others. 


28  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Direction. —  Write  these  words,  using  capital  letters  when  needed : — 

Ohio  river,  professor  huxley,  president  adams,  doctor  brown,  arctic 
circle,  clinton  county,  westchester  county,  torrid  zone,  colonel  burr, 
secretary  stanton,  lake  george,  green  mountains,  white  sea,  cape  cod, 
delaware  bay,  atlantic  ocean,  united  states,  rhode  island. 

liememher  that,  when  an  individual  name  is  made  up  of  a 
class  name,  the  word  of,  and  a  distinguishing  word,  the  class 
name  and  the  distinguishing  word  should  each  begin  with  a 
capital  letter  ;  as,  Gulf  of  Mexico.  But,  when  the  distin- 
guishing word  can,  by  itself,  be  regarded  as  a  complete  name, 
the  class  name  should  begin  with  a  small  letter ;  as,  city  of 
London.^ 

Direction. —  Write  these  ivords,  using  capital  letters  when  needed  : — 

♦The  need  of  Pome  definite  instruction  to  save  the  youiig  writer  from  hesitation 
and  confusion  in  the  use  of  capitals  is  evident  from  the  following  variety  of  forma 
now  in  use  :  City  of  New  York,  city  of  New  York,  New  York  City,  New  York  city. 
New  York  State,  New  York  stats.  Fourth  Avenue,  Fourth  avenue.  Grand  Street, 
Grand  street,  Grand-s^.,  Atlantic  Ocean,  Atlantic  ocean,  Mediterranean  Sea,  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  Kings  County,  Kings  county^  etc. 

The  usage  of  newspnpers  and  of  text-books  on  geography  would  probably  favor  the 
writing  of  the  class  names  in  the  examples  above  with  initial  capitals  ;  but  we  find  in 
the  most  carefully  printed  books  and  periodical?  a  tendency  to  favor  small  letters  in 
such  cases. 

In  the  superscription  of  letters,  such  words  as  street,  city,  county,  etc.,  begin  with 
capitals. 

Usage  certainly  favors  small  initials  for  the  following  italicized  words  :  river  Wiima, 
Catskill  village,  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers.  If  river  and  village,  in  the  preced- 
ing examples,  are  not  essential  parts  of  the  individual  names,  why  should  river,  ocean, 
and  county,  in  Hudson  Hver,  Pacific  ocean,  Queens  coiiniy,  be  treated  diff'erently  ? 
We  often  say  the  Hudson,  the  Pacific,  Queens,  without  adding  the  explanatory  class 
name. 

The  principle  we  suggest  may  be  in  advnnce  of  common  usage  ;  but  it  is  in  the  line 
of  progress,  it  tends  to  uniformity  of  practice  and  to  an  improved  appearance  of  the 
page.    About  a  century  ago  every  noun  began  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  American  Cyclopa3dia  takes  a  position  still  farther  in  advance,  as  illustrated  in 
the  following:  'Rq(\  river,  B\i!ick  sea,  gulf  oiMesXco,  Kocky  mountains.  In  the  En- 
cyclopoedia  Britannica  (Little,  Brown,  &  Co.,  9th  Ed.)  we  find  Connecticut  river, 
Madiscm  county,  etc.,  quite  uniformly  ;  but  not  so  with  gu^,  ocean,  etc. 


Capital  Letters.  29 


city  of  atlanta,  isle  of  man,  straits  of  dover,  state  of  Vermont,  isth- 
mus of  darien,  sea  of  galilee,  queen  of  england,  bay  of  naples,  empire  of 
china. 

nememher  that,  when  a  compound  name  is  made  up  of 
two  or  more  distinguishing  words,  as,  Henry  Clay,  John 
Stuart  Mill,  each  word  begins  with  a  capital  letter. 

Direction.  —  Write  these  words,  using  capital  Utters  when  needed  : — 

great  britain,  lower  California,  south  Carolina,  daniel  webster,  new  eng- 
land, Oliver  wendell  holmes,  north  america,  new  Orleans,  james  russell 
lowell,  british  america. 

lieinember  that,  in  writing  the  titles  of  books,  essays, 
poems,  plays,  etc.,  and  the  names  of  the  Deity,  only  the 
chief  words  begin  with  capital  letters  ;  as.  Decline  and  Fall 
of  the  Eoman  Empire,  Supreme  Being,  Paradise  Lost,  the 
Holy  One  of  Israel. 

Direction.—  Write  these  words,  using  capital  letters  when  needed  : — 

declaration  of  independence,  clarendon's  history  of  the  great  rebell- 
ion, Webster's  reply  to  hayne,  pilgrim's  progress,  Johnson's  lives  of  the 
poets,  son  of  man,  the  most  high,  dombey  and  son,  tent  on  the  beach, 
bancroft's  history  of  the  united  states. 

Direction.— TTnYe  these  miscellaneous  names,  using  capital  letters 
when  needed  :— 

erie  canal,  governor  tilden,  napoleon  bonaparte,  cape  of  good  hope, 
pope's  essay  on  criticism,  massachusetts  bay,  city  of  boston,  continent  of 
america*  new  testament,  goldsmith's  she  stoops  to  conquer,  milton's 
hymn  on  the  nativity,  Indian  ocean,  cape  cod  bay,  ply  mouth  rock, 
anderson's  history  of  the  united  states,  mount  Washington,  english 
channel,  the  holy  spirit,  new  york  central  railroad,  old  world,  long 
island  sound,  flatbush  village. 


30  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


LISS©!^  I©. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Direction. — Some  words  occur  frequently,  and  for  convenience  are  ah-' 
hreviated  in  writing.  Observing  Rule  2,  Lesson  8,  abbreviate  these  words 
by  writing  the  first  five  letters  : — 

Thursday  and  lieutenant. 

These  by  writing  the  first  four  letters  : — 

Connecticut,  captain,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Nebraska,  Oregon,  professor,  president,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Tuesday. 

These  by  writing  the  first  three  letters  : —  / 

Alabama,  answer,  Arkansas,  California,  colonel,  Delaware,  England, 
esquire,  Friday,  general,  George,  governor,  honorable,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
major,  Monday,  Nevada,  reverend,  Saturday,  secretary,  Sunday,  Texas, 
Wednesday,  Wisconsin,  and  the  names  of  the  months  except  May,  June, 
and  July. 

These  by  writing  the  first  two  letters : — 

Company,  county,  credit,  example,  and  idem  (the  same). 

These  by  writing  the  first  letter  : — 

East,  north,  south,  and  west. 

These  by  writing  the  first  and  the  last  letter  :— 

Doctor,  debtor,  Georgia,  junior,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Mary- 
land, Master,  Mister,  numero  (number),  Pennsylvania,  saint,  street, 
Vermont,  and  Virginia. 

These  by  writing  the  first  letter  of  each  word  of  the  compound  tvith 
a  period  after  each  letter: — 

Artium  baccalaureus  (bachelor  of  arts),  anno  Domini  (in  the  year  of 
our  Lord),  artium  magister  (master  of  arts),  ante  meridiem  (before 
noon),  before  Christ,  collect  on  delivery,  District  (of)  Columbia,  divini- 
tatis  doctor  (doctor  of  divinity),  member  (of)  Congress,  medicina?  doctor 
(doctor  of  medicine),  member  (of)  Parliament,  North  America,  North 


Abbreviations. 


31 


Carolina,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  postmaster,  post 
meridiem  (afternoon),  post-office,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  and 
United  States. 

Direction.— !7%e  following  abbreviations  and  those  you  have  made 
must  be  committed  to  memory  : — 


Acct.  or  acct. 

,  account. 

bu., 

bushel. 

Bbl.  or  bbl., 

barrel. 

do., 

ditto  (the  same). 

Chas., 

Charles. 

doz., 

dozen.                         [pJe). 

Fla., 

Florida. 

e.g.. 

exempli  gratia  (for  exam- 

*LL.  D., 

legum  doctor 

etc., 

et  caetera  (and  others). 

(doctor  of  laws). 

ft.. 

foot,  feet. 

Messrs., 

messieurs 

hhd.. 

hogshead. 

(gentlemen). 

hdkf. 

,  handkerchief. 

Mme., 

madame. 

i.  e.. 

id  est  (that  is). 

Mo., 

Missouri. 

1., 

line. 

Mrs., 

(pronounced  missis) 

U., 

lines. 

mistress. 

lb.. 

libra  (pound). 

Mts., 

mountains. 

oz.. 

ounce. 

Ph.  D., 

philosophiaB  doctor     • 

Pv 

page. 

(doctor  of  philosophy) 

.pp.. 

pages.   . 

Reed., 

received. 

qt.. 

quart. 

Robt., 

Robert. 

vs.. 

versus  (against). 

Supt., 

superintendent. 

viz.. 

videlicet  (namely). 

Thos., 

Thomas. 

yd.. 

yard. 

Remark. — In  this  Lesson  we  have  given  the  abbreviations  of  the 
states  as  now  regulated  by  the  "U.  S.  Official  Postal  Guide."  In  the 
"  Guide  "  Iowa  and  Ohio  are  not  abbreviated.  They  are,  however,  fre- 
quently abbreviated  thus  :  Iowa,  la.  or  lo.;  Ohio,  0. 

The  similarity,  when  hurriedly  written,  of  the  abbreviations  Gai., 
Col.;  Ia.,,Io.;  Neb..,  Nev,;  Penn.,  Tenn.,  etc.,  has  led  to  much  confusion. 


*  The  doubling  of  the  I  in  U.  and  LL.  Z>.,  and  ot  pinpp.,  with  no  period  between 
the  letters,  comes  from  pluralizing  the  nouns  line,  lex,  auid  page. 


32  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


VERBS. 

Introductory  Hints. — We  told  you,  Lesson  8,  how,  by  noticing  the 
essential  likenesses  in  things  and  grouping  the  things  thus  alike,  we 
could  throw  the  countless  objects  around  us  into  comparatively  few 
classes. 

We  began  to  classify  words  according  to  their  wse,  or  o^ce,  in  the  sen- 
tence, and  found  one  class  that  name  things,  and  called  them  nouns. 

But  in  all  the  sentences  given  you,  we  have  had  to  use  another  class 
of  words.  These  words,  you  notice,  tell  what  the  things  do,  or  assert 
that  they  are,  or  exist. 

When  we  say  ClocJcs  ticJc,  tick  is  not  the  name  of  anything  ;  it  tells 
what  clocks  do  ;  it  asserts  action. 

When  we  say  Clocks  are,  or  There  are  clocks,  are  is  not  the  name  of 
anything,  nor  does  it  tell  what  clocks  do  ;  it  simply  asserts  existence, 
or  heing. 

When  we  say  Clocks  hang,  stand,  last,  lie,  or  remain,  these  words 
hmig,  stand,  last,  etc.,  do  not  name  anything,  nor  do  they  tell  that 
clocks  act  or  simply  exist;  they  tell  the  condition,  ox  state,  in  which 
clocks  are,  or  exist ;  that  is,  they  assert  state  of  being. 

All  words  that  assert  action,  being,  or  state  of  being,  we  call  Verbs 
(Lat.  wrbum,  a  word).  The  name  was  given  to  this  class,  because  it 
was  thought  that  they  were  the  most  important  words  in  the  sentence. 
They  form  the  second  part  of  speech. 

Give  a  score  of  verbs  that  assert  action.  Give  some  that  assert  being, 
and  some  that  assert  state  of  being. 


DEFINITION.— A  Verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  action,  being,  or 
state  of  being. 

There  are  two  forms  of  the  verb,  the  participle  and  the 
infinitive  (see  Lessons  37  and  40),  that  express  action,  be- 
ing, or  state  of  being,  without  asserting  it. 


Verbs. 


33 


Direction. —  Write  after  each  of  the  following  nouns  as  many  appro- 
priate verbs  as  you  can  think  of : — 

Let  some  express  being  and  some  state  of  being. 
Model.—      Noun. 


'  burns. 

melt. 

scorches. 

Remark.— Notice  that  the 

Fire 

keep. 

simple  form  of  the  verb,  as. 

(or)    - 

spreads. 

hum,  melt,  scorch,  adds  s  or 

Fires 

glow. 

es    when  its    subject    noun 

rages. 

names  but  one  thing. 

heat. 

^  exists. 

Lawyers,  mills,  horses,  books,  education,  birds,  mind. 

A  verb  may  consist  of  two,  three,  or  even  four  words ; 
as,  is  learning y  may  le  learned,  could  have  been  learned. 

Direction. —  Unite  the  words  in  columns  2  and  3,  and  append  the 
verbs  thus  formed  to  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  column  1 : — 

Remark. — Notice  that  is,  was,  and  has  are  used  with  nouns  naming 
one  thing,  and  with  the  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it ;  and  that  are,  were, 
and  have  are  used  with  nouns  naming  more  than  one  thing,  and  with 
the  pronouns  we,  you,  and  they.  I  may  be  used  with  am,  was,  and 
have. 


1 

Words 

2 
am 

3 
confused. 

Cotton 
Sugar 
Air 

is 
are 

exported. 

refined. 

coined. 

Teas 

was 

delivered. 

Speeches 

I,  we,  you 

He,  she,  it,  they 

were 
has  been 
have  been 

weighed. 

imported. 

transferred. 

As  verbs  are  the  only  words  that  assert,  every  predicate 
mnst  be  a  verb,  or  must  contain  a  verb, 
3 


34  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Natning  the  class  to  which  a  word  belongs  is  the  first 
step  in  parsing. 

Direction.— Parse  five  of  the  sentences  you  have  written. 
Model.— Poland  was  dismembered. 

jpar sing. —Poland  is  a  noun,  because ;    was  dismembered  is  a 

verb,  because  it  asserts  action. 


L£§S©li  n. 


MODIFIED    SUBJECT. 

Adjectives. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  subject  noun  and  the  predicate  verb  are 
not  always  or  often  the  whole  of  ,the  structure  that  we  call  the  sentence, 
though  they  are  the  underlying  timbers  that  support  the  rest  of  the 
verbal  bridge.     Other  words  may  be  built  upon  them. 

We  learned  in  Lesson  8  that  things  resemble  one  another  and  differ 
from  one  another.  They  resemble  and  they  differ  in  what  we  call  their 
qualities.  Things  are  alike  whose  qualities  are  the  same  ;  as,  two 
oranges  having  the  same  color,  taste,  and  odor.  Things  are  unlike,  as, 
an  orange  and  an  apple,  whose  qualities  are  different. 

It  is  by  their  qualities,  then,  that  we  know  things,  and  are  able  to 
separate  them  or  to  group  them. 

Pipe  apples  are  healthful.  Unripe  apples  are  hurtful.  In  these  two 
sentences  we  have  the  same  word  apples  to  name  the  same  general  class 
of  things ;  but  the  prefixed  words  ripe  and  unripe,  marking  opposite 
qualities  in  the  apples,  separate  them  into  two  kinds — the  ripe  ones  and 
the  unripe  ones. 

These  prefixed  words  ripe  and  unripe,  then,  limit  the  word  apples  in 
its  scope ;  ripe  apples  or  unripe  apples  applies  to  fewer  things  than 
apples  alone. 

If  we  say  the,  this,  that  apple,  or  an,  no  apple,  or  some,  many,  eight 
apples,  we  do  not  mark  any  quality  of  the  fruit ;  but  the,  this,  or  that 
points  out  a  particular  apple,  and  limits  the  word  apple  to  the  one 
pointed  out ;  and  an,  no,  some,  many,  or  eight  limits  the  word  in  respect 
to  the  number  of  apples  that  it  denotes. 


Modified  Subject,  35 


These  and  all  such  words  as  by  marking  quality,  pointing  out,  or 
specifying  number  or  quantity  limit  the  scope  or  meaning  of  the  noun, 
modify  it,  and  are  called  Modifiers. 

In  the  sentence  above,  apples  is  the  Simple  Subject  and  ripe  apples 
is  the  Modified  Subject. 

Words  modifying  nouns  and  pronouns  are  called  Adjectives  (Lat. 
ady  to,  audjacere,  to  throw),  and  form  the  fourth  part  of  speech. 


DEFINITION.— A  Moclifier  is  a  word  or  group  of  words  joined 
to  some  part  of  the  sentence  to  qualify  or  limit  the  meaning. 

The  Subject  with  its  Modifiers  is  called  the  Modified 
Subject,     Bj  some  it  is  called  the  Logical  Subject. 

DEFINITION.— An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  noun 
or  a  pronoun. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
1.  The  cold  November  rain  is  falling. 

is  faUinq  Explanation.— The  two  lines  shaded  alike 

—  and  placed  uppermost  stand  for  the  subject 
and  the  predicate,  and  show  that  these  are  of 
the  same  rank,  and  are  the  principal  parts  of 
the  sentence.  The  lighter  lines,  placed  under 
and  joined  to  the  subject  line,  stand  for  the 
less  important  parts,  the  modifiers,  and  show  what  is  modified.* 

*  To  the  Teacher.— When  several  adjectives  are  joined  to  one  noun,  each  adjec- 
tive does  not  always  modify  the  noun  alone.  That  old  wooden  house  was  burned. 
Here  wooden  modifies  house,  old  modifies  wooden,  house^  and  that  modifies  old  wooden 
house.    This  may  be  illustrated  in  the  diagram  by  numbering  the  | 

modifiers  in  the  order  of  their  rank,  thus  : —  Xs  \    \ 

Adverbs,  and  both  phrase  and  clause  modifiers  often  differ  in  ^^ 

rank  in  the  same  way,  and  in  the  diagram  this  difference  may  be  indicated  as  above. 

If  the  pupils  are  able  to  see  these  distinctions,  it  would  be  well  to  have  them  made 
in  the  analysis,  as  they  often  determine  the  punctuation  and  the  arrangement.  Seo 
Lessons  13  and  21. 


36  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Oral  Analysis.— {^QVQ  and  hereafter  we  shall  omit  from  the  oral 
analysis  and  parsing  whatever  has  been  provided  for  in  previous  Les- 
sons.) The,  cold,  and  November  are  modifiers  of  the  subject.  The 
cold  November  rain  is  the  modified  subject. 

Barsing.-The,  cold,  and  November  are  adjectives  modifying  rain, — 
cold  and  November  expressing  quality,  and  the  pointing  out. 

2.  The  great  Spanish  Armada  was  destroyed. 

3.  A  free  people  should  be  educated. 

4.  The  old  Liberty  bell  was  rung. 

5.  The  famous  Alexandrian  library  was  burned. 

6.  The  odious  Stamp  Act  was  repealed. 

7.  Every  intelligent  American  citizen  should  vote. 

8.  The  long  Hoosick  tunnel  is  completed. 

9.  I  alone  should  suffer. 

10.  All  nature  rejoices. 

11.  Five  large,  ripe,  luscious,  mellow  apples  were  picked. 

12.  The  melancholy  autumn  days  have  come. 

13.  A  poor  old  wounded  soldier  returned. 

14.  The  oppressed  Russian  serfs  have  been  freed. 

15.  Immense  suspension  bridges  have  been  built. 


COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVES. 

Caution,— W\iQVL  two  or  more  adjectives  are  used  with  a 
noun,  care  must  be  taken  in  their  arrangement.  If  they 
differ  in  rank,  place  nearest  the  noun  the  one  most  closely 
modifying  it.  If  of  the  same  rank,  place  them  where  they 
will  sound  best — generally  in  the  order  of  length,  the  short- 
est first. 

Explanation. —  Two  horiest  young  men  were  chosen.    A  tall,  straight. 


Composition — A  djectives. 


37 


dignified  person  entered.  Young  tells  the  kind  of  men,  honest  teUs  the 
kind  of  young  men,  and  two  tells  the  niimber  of  honest  young  men  ; 
hence  these  adjectives  are  not  of  the  same  rank.  Tall,  straight,  and 
dignified  modify  person  independently — ^the  person  is  tall  and  straight 
and  dignified  ;  hence  these  adjectives  are  of  the  same  rank. 

Notice  the  comma  after  taU  and  straight;  and  may  be  supplied  ;  in 
the  first  sentence  and  cannot  be  supplied.     See  Lesson  21. 

Direction. — Arrange  the  adjectives,  helow,  and  give  your  reasons  : — 
1.  A  Newfoundland  pet  handsome  large  dog.     2.  Level  low  five  the 
fields.     3.  A  wooden  rickety  large  building.    4.  Blind  white  beautiful 
three  mice.    5.  An  energetic  restless  brave  people.     6.  An  enlightened 
civilized  nation. 

Direction. — Form  sentences  by  prefixing  modified  subjects  to  these 


predicates :- 


1. 

have  been  invented. 

6. 

were  carved. 

2. 

were  destroyed. 

7. 

have  been  discovered. 

3. 

are  cultivated. 

8. 

have  fallen. 

4. 

may  be  abused. 

9. 

will  be  respected. 

5. 

was  mutilated. 

10. 

have  been  built. 

Direction. — Construct  ten  sentences,  ea^h  of  which  sTiall  contain  a 
subject  modified  by  three  adjectives — one  from  each  of  these  columns : — 
Let  the  adjectives  be  appropriate.     For  punctuation,  see  Lesson  21. 


The 

dark 

sunny 

That 

bright 

wearisome 

This 

dingy 

commercial 

Those 

short 

blue 

These 

soft 

adventurous 

Five 

brave 

fleecy 

Some 

tiny 

parallel 

Several 

important 

cheerless 

Many 

long 

golden 

A 

warm 

turbid 

Direction. — Prefix  to  each  of  these  nouns  smeral  appropriate  adjec- 
tives : — 

River,  frost,  grain,  ships,  air,  men. 


38  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Direction. — Couple  those  adjectives  and  nouns,  below,  that  most  ap- 
propriately go  together  :— 

Modest,  lovely,  flaunting,  meek,  patient,  faithful,  saucy,  spirited, 
violet,  dahlia,  sheep,  pansy,  ox,  dog,  horse,  rose,  gentle,  duck,  sly, 
waddling,  cooing,  chattering,  homely,  chirping,  puss,  robin,  dove, 
sparrow,  blackbird,  cow,  hen,  cackling. 


MODIFIED    PREDICATE. 
Adverbs. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  have  learned  that  the  subject  may  be 
modified  ;  let  us  see  whether  the  predicate  may  be. 

If  we  say.  The  leaves  fall,  we  express  a  fact  in  a  general  way.  But, 
if  we  wish  to  speak  of  the  time  of  their  falling,  we  can  add  a  word  and 
say,  The  leaves  fall  ea/rly  ;  of  the  place  of  their  falling,  The  leaves  fall 
here  ;  of  the  manner,  The  leaves  fall  quietly  ;  of  the  cause,  Why  do  the 
leaves  fall  ? 

We  may  join  a  word  to  any  of  these  modifiers,  and  even  another  to 
that,  and  say.  The  leaves  fall  so  x>ery  quietly.  Here  mry  modifies  quietly, 
and  so  modifies  very  by  telling  the  degree. 

So  wry  quietly  is  a  group  of  words  modifying  the  predicate.  The 
predicate  with  its  modifiers  is  called  the  Modified  Predicate.  Such 
words  as  so,  very,  here,  and  quieUy  form  the  fifth  part  of  speech,  and 
are  called  Adverbs  (Lat.  ad,  to,  and  verhum,  a  word,  or  verb). 

Adverbs  may.  modify  adjectives  ;  as,  Yery  ripe  apples  are  healthful. 
Adverbs  modify  verbs  just  as  adjectives  modify  nouns— by  limiting 
them.    The  horse  has  a  proud  step,  =  The  horse  steps  proudly. 

The  Predicate  with  its  Modifiers  is  called  the  Modified 
Predicate.     By  some  it  is  called  the  Logical  Predicate. 


Modified  Predicate.  39.. 

BEFIKITION.— An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

Analysis   and   Parsing. 

1.  The  leaves  fall  very  quietly. 

Explanation, — The  two  lines  forming  this  group 
leaves         fall  slant  the  same  way  to  show  that  each  stands  for  a 

modifying  word.    The  line  standing  for  the  principal 

word  of  the  group  is  joined  to  the  predicate  Hue. 

The  end  of  the  other  is  broken,  and  turned  to  touch 

its  principal. 


1 


Oral  Analysis. —  Very  quietly  is  a  modifier  of  the  predicate  ;  quietly 
is  the  principal  word  of  the  group  ;  very  modifies  quietly  ;  the  leaves 
is  the  modified  subject  ;  faU  very  quietly  is  the  modified  predicate. 

Parsing. — Quietly  is  an  adverb  modifying  fall,  telling  the  manner  ; 
very  is  an  adverb  modifying  quietly ^  telling  the  degree. 

2.  The  old,  historic  Charter  Oak  was  blown  down. 

3.  The  stem,  rigid  Puritans  often  worshiped  there. 

4.  Bright-eyed  daisies  peep  up  everywhere. 

5.  The  precious  morning  hours  should  not  be  wasted. 

6.  The  timely  suggestion  was  very  kindly  received. 

7.  We  turned  rather  abruptly. 

8.  A  highly  enjoyable  entertainment  was  provided. 

9.  The  entertainment  was  highly  enjoyed. 

10.  Why  will  people  exaggerate  so  ? 

11.  A  somewhat  dangerous  pass  had  been  reached  quite  unex- 
pectedly. 

12.  We  now  travel  still  more  rapidly. 

13.  Therefore  he  spoke  excitedly. 

14.  Y©u  will  undoubtedly  be  veiy  cordially  welcomed. 

15.  A  furious  equinoctial  gale  has  just  swept  by. 

16.  The  Hell  Gate  reef  was  slowly  drilled  away. 


40  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESiOH  li. 

COMPOSITION— ADVERBS. 

Caution. — Place  adverbs  where  there  can  be  no  doubt  as 
to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  Have  regard  to  the 
sound  also. 

Direction. — Place  the  italicized  words,  helow,  in  as  many  different 
positions  as  possible,  and  note  the  effect  on  the  sound  and  the  sense : — 

1.  1  immediately  ra,n  out.  2.  Ow?2^  one  was  left  there,  3.  She  looked 
down  proudly.    4.   f7>i/or^i^7ia^e^y,  this  assistance  came  too  late. 

Direction. — Construct  on  each  of  these  subjects  three  sentences  having 
modified  subjects  and  modified  predicates : — 

For  punctuation,  see  Lesson  21. 

Model.—  clouds . 

1.  Darh,  heavy,  threatening  clouds  are  slowly  gathering  above, 

2.  Those  brilliant,  crimson  clouds  wiU  very  soon  dissolve. 
8.  Thin,  fieecy  clouds  are  scudding  over. 

1. ocean  — — .     2. breeze .      3. shadows . 

4. rock .      5. leaves . 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  these  adverbs  shall  modify 
verbs : — 

Heretofore,  hereafter,  annually,  tenderly,  inaudibly,  legibly,  eva- 
sively, everywhere,  aloof,  forth. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  five  of  these  adverbs  shall 
modify  adjectives,  and  five  shall  modify  adverbs  :  — 

Far,  unusually,  quite,  altogether,  slightly,  somewhat,  much,  almost, 
too,  rather. 


Prepositional  Phrases  and  Prepositions,  41 


LSisoii  4§. 

REVIEWS. 

To  the  Teacher,— In  all  school  work,  but  especially  here,  where  the  philosophy 
of  the  sentence  and  the  principles  of  construction  are  developed  in  progressive  steps, 
success  depends  largely  on  the  character  of  the  reviews. 

Let  reviews  be,  as  far  as  possible,  topical.  Kequire  frequent  outlines  of  the  work 
passed  over,  especially  of  what  is  taught  in  the  "  Introductory  Hints."  Except  Rules 
and  Definitions,  the  language  should  be  the  pupil's  own,  and  ihe  illustrative  sentences 
should  be  original. 

In  oral  recitation,  such  a  topic  as  Classification  of  Words  or  Forms  of  Individual 
Names  may  be  presented  to  the  class  and  passed  from  one  pupil  to  another  till  a  full 
discussion  is  obtained. 

Direction. — Review  from  Lesson  8  to  Lesson  15,  inclusive. 

Give  the  substance  of  the  "Introductory  Hints"  (tell,  for  example, 
what  three  things  such  words  as  tick,  are,  and  remain  do  in  the  sentence, 
what  office  they  have  in  common,  what  such  words  are  called,  and  why; 
what  common  office  such  words  as  ripe,  the,  and  eight  have,  in  what 
three  ways  they  perform  it,  what  such  words  are  called,  and  why,  etc.). 
Memorize  and  illustrate  definitions  and  rules;  illustrate  what  is  taught 
of  the  capitalization  and  abbreviation  of  names,  and  of  the  position 
of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 


PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASES  AND   PREPOSI- 
TIONS. 

Introductory  Hints. — To  express  our  thoughts  with  greater  distinct- 
ness we  may  need  to  expand  a  word  modifier  into  several  words  ;  as,  A 
long  ride  brought  us  there-=L  ride  of  one  hundred  miles  brought  us  to 
Chicago.  These  groups  of  words,  of  one  hundred  miles  and  to  Chicago, 
— the  one  substituted  for  the  adjective  long,  the  other  for  the  adverb 
there— v^Q  call  Phrases. 

As  adverbs  modify  adjectives  and  adverbs,  they  may  modify  their 
equivalent  phrases  ;  as.  The  train  stops  onli/  at  the  station. 


42  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

They  sometimes  modify  only  the  preposition  of  the  phrase  ;  as,  He  sailed 
nearly  around  the  globe. 

That  we  may  learn  the  office  of  such  words  as  of,  to,  and  at,  used  to 
introduce  these  phrases,  let  us  see  how  the  relation  of  one  idea  to 
another  may  be  expressed.  Wealthy  men.  These  two  words  express  two 
ideas  as  related.  We  have  learned  to  know  this  relation  by  the  form  and 
position  of  the  words.  Change  these,  and  the  relation  is  lost— me/i 
wealth.  But  by  using  of  before  wealth  the  relation  is  restored — men  of 
wealth.  The  word  of,  then,  shows  the  relation  between  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed by  the  words  men  and  wealth. 

All  such  relation  words  are  called  Prepositions  (Lat.  prce,  before, 
and  posit  us,  placed — their  usual  position  being  before  the  noun 
with  which  they  form  a  phrase). 


DEFINITION.— A  Phrase  is  a  group  of  words  denoting  related 
ideas  but  not  expressing  a  thought. 

DEFINITION. — A  JPreposition  is  a  word  that  introduces  a 
phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its  principal 
word  to  the  word  modified. 

Analysis    and   Parsing. 

1.  The  pitch  of  the  musical  note  depends  upon  the  rapidity  of  vibra- 
tion. 

pitch        .        depends  Explanation.-The  diagram 

'  of  the  phrase  is   made  up  of  a 

slanting  line  standing  for  the 
introductory  word,  and  a  hori- 
zontal line  representing  the 
principal  word.  Under  the 
latter  are  drawn  the  lines  which 
represent  the  modifiers  of  the 
principal  word. 

Oral  Analysis  — The  and  the  adjective  phrase  of  the  musical  note  are 
modifiers  of  the  subject ;  the  adverb  phrase  upon  the  rapidity  of  vibra- 
tion is  a  modifier  of  the  predicate.  Of  introduces  the  first  phrase,  and 
note  is  the  principal  word  ;  the  and  musical  are  modifiers  of  note  ;  upon 


Prepositional  Phrases  and  Prepositions.  43 

.'ntroduces  the  second  phrase,  and  rapidity  is  the  principal  word  ;  the 
and  the  adjective  phrase  of  vibration  are  modifiers  of  rapidity  ;  of  in- 
troduces tliis  phrase,  and  vibration  is  the  principal  word. 

rar;iing,—Of  is  a  preposition  showing  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  note 
to  pitch;  etc.,  etc. 

To  the  Teacher.— InsiHt  that,  in  parsing,  the  pupils  shall  gire  specific  reasons 
instead  of  general  definitions. 

2.  The  Gulf  Stream  can  be  traced  along  the  shores  of  the  United 
States  by  the  blueness  of  the  water. 

3.  /The  North  Pole  has  been  approached  in  three  principal  directions. 
4.' In  1607,  Hudson  penetrated  within  six  hundred  miles  of  the 

North  Pole. 

5.  /The  breezy  morning  died  into  silent  noon. 

6.bThe  Delta  of  the  Mississippi  was  once  at  St.  Louis. 

7.  jCoal  of  all  kinds  has  originated  from  the  decay  of  plants. 

S.VjGenius  can  breathe  freely  only  in  the  atmosphere  of  freedom. 


atmosphere  \     \       Falls 


\' 


Explanation — Only  modifies  the  whole  phrase  ;  and  just,  the  preposi- 
tion. 

9.  The  Suspension  Bridge  is  stretched  across  the  Niagara  river  just 
below  the  Falls. 

10.  In  Mother  Goose  the  cow  jumps  clear  over,  the  moon. 

11.  The  first  standing  army  was  formed  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century. 

12.  The  first  astronomical  observatory  in  Europe  was  erected  at 
Seville  by  the  Saracens. 

13.  The  tails  of  some  comets  stretch  to  the  distance  of  100,000,000 
miles. 

14.  The  body  of  the  great  Napoleon  was  carried  back  from  St. 
Helena  to  France. 


44  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESiOli  IS. 

COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL    PHRASES. 

COMMA— RULE.— A  Phrase  out  of  its  natural  order  *  or  not 
closely  connected  with  the  word  it  modifies,  should  be  set  off  by 
the  comma,  f 

Remark. — This  rule  must  be  applied  with  caution.  Unless  the  phrase 
is  to  be  made  emphatic,  or  it  breaks  the  continuity  of  the  thought,  the 
growing  usage  among  writers  is  not  to  set  it  off. 

Direction. — Tell  why  the  comma  is,  or  is  not,  used  in  these  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  Between  the  two  mountains  lies  a  fertile  valley. 

2.  Of  the  scenery  along  the  Rhine,  many  travelers  speak  with  en- 
thusiasm. 

3.  He  went,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  stranger,  for  the  doctor. 

4.  He  went  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  on  Monday. 

5.  In  the  dead  of  night,  with  a  chosen  band,  under  the  cover  of  a 
truce,  he  approached. 

Direction. — Punctuate  such  of  these  sentences  as  need  punctua- 
tion : — 

1.  England  in  the  eleventh  century  was  conquered  by  the  Normans. 

2.  Amid  the  angry  yells  of  the  spectators  he  died. 

3.  For  the  sake  of  emphasis  a  word  or  a  phrase  may  be  placed  out  of 
its  natural  order. 

4.  In  the  Pickwick  Papers  the  conversation  of  Sam  Weller  is  spiced 
with  wit. 

5.  New  York  on  the  contrary  abounds  in  men  of  wealth. 

6.  It  has  come  down  by  uninterrupted  tradition  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present  day. 

*  For  the  natural  order  of  words  and  phrases,  see  Lesson  51. 

t  An  expression  in  the  body  of  a  sentence  is  set  off  by  two  commas;  at  the  beginmng 
or  at  the  end,  liy  one  comma. 


Composition — Prepositional  Phrases.  45 

Caution, — Place  phrase  modifiers  where  there  can  be  no 
doubt  as  to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  Have  regard 
to  the  sound  also. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  in  position,  and  use  the  comma  when 

needed : — 

1.  The  honorable  member  was  reproved  for  being  intoxicated  by  the 
president. 

2.  That  small  man  is  speaking  with  red  whiskers. 

3.  A  message  was  read  from  the  President  in  the  Senate. 

4.  With  his  gun  toward  the  woods  he  started  in  the  morning. 

5.  On  Monday  evening  on  temperance  by  Mr.  Gough  a  lecture  at  the 
old  brick  church  was  delivered. 

Direction. — Form  a  sentence  out  of  each  of  these  groups  of  words : — 
Look  sharply  to  the  arrangement  and  the  punctuation. 

1.  Of  mind  of  splendor  under  the  garb  often  is  concealed  poverty. 

2.  Of  affectation  of  the  young  fop  in  the  face  impertijient  an  was 
seen  smile.  «  '         *  * 

3.  Has  been  scattered  Bible  English  the  of  millions  by  hundreds  of 
the  earth  over  the  face.  ^ 

4.  To  the  end  with  no  small  difficulty  of  the  journey  at  last  through 
deep  roads  we  after  much  fatigue  came. 

5.  At  the  distance  a  flood  of  flame  from  the  line  from  thirty  iron 
mouths  of  twelve  hundred  yards  of  the  enemy  poured  forth. 

Direction. — See  into  how  many  good,  clear  sentences  you  can  convert 
these  hy  transposing  the  phrases  :— 

1.  He  went  over  the  mountains  on  a  certain  day  in  early  boyhood. 

2.  Ticonderoga  was  taken  from  the  British  by  Ethan  Allen  on  the 
tenth  of  May  in  1775. 

To  the  Teacher.— Examine  the  text-books  frequently,  and  see  that  no  pupil 
marks  upon  the  page  the  punctuation  of  the  sentences. 


46  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

LESS©!  IS. 

COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONAL    PHRASES. 

Direction. — Rewrite  tliese  sentences,  changing  the  italicized  words  into 
equivalent  phrases : — 

Model,— The  sentence  was  carefully  written. 
The  sentence  was  written  with  care. 

1.  A  brazen  image  was  then  set  up. 

2.  Those  homeless  children  were  Mndly  treated. 

3.  Much  has  been  said  about  the  Swiss  scenery. 

4.  An  aerial  trip  to  Europe  was  rashly  planned. 

5.  The  American  Continent  was  probably  discovered  by  Cabot. 

l>ixection.— Change  these  adjectives  and  adverbs  into  equivalent 
phrases;  and  then,  attending  carefully  to  the  puiictuation,  use  these 
phrases  in  sentences  of  yoUr  own : — 

1.  Bostonian  6.  hence  11.  Arabian 

2.  why  7.  northerly  12.  lengthy 

3.  incautiously  8.  national  13.  historical 

4.  nowhere  9.  whence  14.  lucidly 

5.  there  10.  here  15.  earthward 

Direction. — Compose  sentences,  using  these  phrases  as  modifiers  :— 
-   Of  copper  ;  in  Pennsylvania  ;  from  the  West  Indies  ;    around  the 
world  ;  between  the  tropics  ;  toward  the  Pacific  ;  on  the  22d  of  Decem- 
ber ;  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ;  before  the  application  of  steam  to 
machinery  ;  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876. 

To  the  Teacher.— If  your  pupils  need  more  drill  in  the  analysis  and  parsing  of 
prepositional  phrases,  you  can  make  np  for  them  an  exercise  or  two,  from  the  sen- 
tences in  Lesson  18  and  those  they  are  required  to  construct  in  Lesson  19. 


Compound  Subject  and  Compound  Predicate.       47 


LESS©!    S0» 

COMPOUND  SUBJECT    AND    COMPOUND 
PREDICATE. 

Conjunctions  and  Interjections. 

Introductory  Hints.— JEJdward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  reigned  in 
JSngland.  The  three  words  Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  have  the 
same  predicate — the  same  action  being  asserted  of  the  king  and  the  two 
queens.  Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  are  connected  by  and,  and  be- 
ing understood  between  Edward  and  Mary.  Connected  subjects  having 
the  same  predicate  form  a  Compound  Subject. 

Charles  I.  was  seized,  was  tried,  and  was  beheaded.  The  three  pred- 
icates was  seized,  was  tried,  and  was  beheaded  have  the  same  subject — 
the  three  actions  being  asserted  of  the  same  king.  Connected  predicates 
having  the  same  subject  form  a  Compound  Predicate. 

A  sentence  may  have  both  a  compound  subject  and  a  compound  pred- 
icate ;  as,  Mary  and  Elizabeth  lived  and  reigned  in  England. 

The  words  connecting  the  parts  of  a  compound  subject  or  of  a  com- 
pound predicate  are  called  Conjimctions  (Lat.  con  [cum],  together,  and 
jungere,  to  join),  and  form  the  seventh  part  of  speech. 

A  conjunction  may  connect  other  parts  of  the  sentence,  as  two  word 
modifiers — A  dark  and  rainy  night  follows.  Some  men  sin  deliberately 
and  presumptuously. 

It  may  connect  two  phrases  ;  as,  The  equinox  occurs  in  March  and  in 
September. 

It  may  connect  two  clauses,  that  is,  expressions  that,  standing  alone, 
would  be  sentences  ;  as,  The  leaves  of  the  pine  fall  in  spring,  but  the 
leaves  of  the  maple  drop  in  autumn. 

Inteijections  (Lat.  inter,  between,  and  jacere,  to  throw)  are  the  eighth 
and  last  part  of  speech. 

Oh  !  ah  !  pooh  !  psha  !  etc.,  express  bursts  of  feeling  too  sudden  and 
violent  for  deliberate  sentences. 

Hail !  fudge  !  indeed  !  amen  !  etc.,  once  verbs,  nouns,  or  adverbs, 
have  lost  their  grammatical  relation  to  other  words.  These  express 
condensed  thought  as  well  as  feeling. 


48 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Any  part  of  speech  may  thus  be  wrenched  from  its  construction 
with  other  words,  and  may  lapse  into  an  interjection  ;  as,  Behold  ! 
shame  !  what ! 


Two  or  more  connected  subjects  having  the  same  predicate 
form  a  Compound  Subject. 

Two  or  more  connected  predicates  haying  the  same  sub- 
ject form  a  Compound  Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— A  Conjunction  Is  a  word  used  to  connect 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

BEFINIT10N.~An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express 
strong  or  sudden  feeling. 


Analysis    and    Parsing. 

1.  Ah  I  anxious  wives,  sisters,  and  mothers  wait  for  the  news. 

Explanation.— ThQ  three  short  hor- 
izontal lines  represent  each  apart  of  the 
compound  subject.  They  are  connected 
by  dotted  lines,  which  stand  for  the 
connecting  word.  The  x  shows  that  a 
conjunction  is  understood.  The  line 
standing  for  the  word  modifier  is  joined 
to  that  part  of  the  subject  line  which 
represents  the  entire  subject.  Turn  this  diagram  about,  and  the  connected 
horizontal  lines  will  stand  for  the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate. 

Oral  Analysis.— Wives,  sisters,  and  mothers  form  the  compound  sub- 
ject ;  anxious  is  a  modifier  of  the  compound  subject ;  and  connects 
sisters  and  mothers. 

Parsing.— And  i&  Sk  conjunction  connecting  sisters  and  mothers;  ah 
is  an  interjection,  expressing  a  sudden  burst  of  feeling. 

2.  In  a  letter  we  may  advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss. 
(For  diagram  see  the  last  sentence  of  the  "  Explanation  "  above.) 


Compound  Subject  and  Compound  Predicate.       49 

3.  The  mental,  moral,  and  muj^cular  powers  are  improved  by  use. 

poioers came 


4.  The  hero  of  the  Book  of  Job  came  from  a  strange  land  and  of  a 
strange  parentage. 

5.  The  optic  nerve  passes  from  the  brain  to  the  back  of  the  eyeball, 
and  there  spreads  out. 

6.  Between  the  mind  of  man  and  the  outer  world  are  interposed  the 
nerves  of  the  human  body. 

7.  All  forms  of  the  lever  and  all  the  principal  kinds  of  hinges  are 
found  in  the  body. 

8.  By  perfection  is  meant  the  full  and  harmonious  development  of  all 
the  faculties.         '  • 

9.  Ugh  !  I  look  forward  with  dread  to  to-morrow. 

10.  From  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  Dead  Sea,  dark  and  misty  and 
solemn,  is  seen. 

11.  Tush  !  tush  !  'twill  not  again  appear. 

13.  A  sort  of  gunpowder  was  used  at  an  early  period  in  China  and  in 
other  parts  of  Asia. 

13.  Some  men  sin  deliberately  and  presumptuously. 

14.  Feudalism  did  not  and  could  not  exist  before  the  tenth  century. 

(The  line  on  which  hefore  stands  should  touch  the  part  of  the  predi- 
cate line  that  represents  the  entire  predicate.  Let  x ,  in  place  of  exist, 
follow  did.) 

15.  The  opinions  of  the  New  York  press  are  quoted  in  every  port  and 
in  every  capital. 

16.  Both  friend  and  foe  applauded. 

^ Explanation.— TYie    conjunction  both    is 

V       applauded      used  to  strengthen  the  real  connective  and. 
^  '  80  with  either — or.  neitJier — nor. 


foe 


50  TJie  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


COMPOSITION— CONNECTED    TERMS    AND 
INTERJECTIONS. 

COMMA— RULE.— Two  or  more  words  or  phrases  connected  by 
conjunctions  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  comma,  unless 
all  the  conjunctions  are  expressed. 

Remark. — When  words  and  phrases  stand  in  pairs,  the  pairs  are 
separated  according  to  the  Rule,  but  the  words  of  each  pair  are  not. 

When  one  term  has  a  modifier  that  without  the  comma  might  be  re- 
ferred to  both,  or  when  the  parts  of  compound  predicates  and  of  other 
phrases  are  long  or  differently  modified,  they  are  separated  by  the 
comma  though  no  conjunction  is  omitted. 

When  two  terms  connected  by  or  have  the  same  meaning,  the  second 
is  logically  explanatory  of  the  first,  and  is  set  off  by  the  comma,  i.  e., 
when  it  occurs  in  the  body  of  the  sentence  a  comma  is  placed  after  the 
explanatory  word,  as  well  as  before  or. 

Direction. — Justify  the  punctuation  of  these  sentences : — 

1.  Long,  pious  pilgrimages  are  made  to  Mecca. 

2.  Empires  rise,  flourish,  and  decay. 

3.  Cotton  is  raised  in  Egypt,  in  India,  and  in  the  United  States. 

4.  The  brain  is  protected  by  the  skull,  or  cranium. 

5.  Nature  and  art  and  science  were  laid  under  tribute. 

6.  The  room  was  furnished  with  a  table,  and  a  chair  without  legs. 

7.  The  old  oaken  bucket  hangs  in  the  well. 

Explanation. — No  comma  here,  for  no  conjunction  is  omitted. 
Oaken  limits  bucket,  old  limits  oaken  bucket,  and  the  limits  old  oaken 
bucket.     See  Lesson  13. 

8.  A  Christian  spirit  should  be  shown  to  Jew  or  Greek,  male  or 
female,  friend  or  foe. 

9.  We  climbed  up  a  mountain  for  a  view. 

Explanation. — No  comma.  Up  a  mountain  tells  where  we  climbed, 
and  for  a  view  tells  why  we  climbed  up  a  mountain. 


Composition — Connected  Terms  and  Interjections.     51 

10.  The  boy  hurries  away  from  home,  and  enters  upon  a  career  of 
business  or  of  pleasure. 

11.  The  long  procession  was  closed  by  the  great  dignitaries  of  the 
realm,  and  the  brothers  and  sons  of  the  king. 

Direction.— i^nc^wa^e  such  of  these  sentences  as  need  punctuation^ 
and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  Men  and  women  and  children  stare  cry  out  and  run. 

2.  Briffjot  healthful  and  vigorous  poetry  was  written  by  Milton. 

3.  Few  honest  industrious  men  fail  of  success  in  life. 

(Where  is  the  conjunction  omitted  ?) 

4.  Ireland  or  the  Emerald  Isle  lies  to  the  west  of  England. 

5.  That  relates  to  the  names  of  animals  or  things  without  sex. 

6.  The  Hebrew  is  closely  allied  to  the  Arabic  the  Phoenician  the 
Syriac  and  the  Chaldec. 

7.  We  sailed  down  the  river  and  along  the  coast  and  into  a  little 
inlet. 

8.  The  horses  and  the  cattle  were  fastened  in  the  same  stables  and 
were  fed  with  abundance. of  hay  and  grain. 

9.  Spring  and  summer  autumn  and  winter  rush  by  in  quick  suc- 
cession. 

10.  A  few  dilapidated  old  buildings  still  stand  in  the  deserted 
village. 

EXCLAMATION  POINT— RULE.— All  exclamatory  expres- 
sions must  be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Remark. — Sometimes  an  interjection  alone  and  sometimes  the  inter- 
jection and  the  words  following  form  the  exclamatory  expression  ;  as, 
Oh  f  it  hurts.     Oh,  the  beautiful  snow  ! 

0  is  used  in  direct  address  ;  as,  0  father,  listen  to  me.  Oh  is  used  as 
a  cry  of  pain,  surprise,  delight,  fear,  or  appeal. 

This  distinction,  however  desirable,  is  not  now  strictly  observed,  0 
being  frequently  used  in  place  of  Oh. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS— RULE.— The  words  I  and  O  should  be 
written  in  capital  letters. 


52 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


Direction. — Correct  these  molations  of  the  two  rules  given  above : — 
1.  o  noble  judge  o  excellent  young  man.     3.  Out  of  the  depths  have 

i  cried  unto  thee.     3.  Hurrah  the  field  is  won.    4.  Pshaw  how  foolish. 

5.  Oh  oh  oh  i  shall  be  killed.     6.  o  life  how  uncertain  o  death  how 

inevitable. 


LESS©!!  ti. 

ANALYSIS   AND    PARSING. 

Direction. — Beginning  with  the  8th  sentence  of  the  first  group  of  ex- 
ercises  in  Lesson  21,  analyze  and  parse  fourteen  sentences, 
should  te  s7iown 

Jew 

Model,~A  Christian  spirit 
should  he  shown  to  Jew  or 
OreeTc,  male  or  female,  friend 
or  foe. 


%a%Ll 


COMPOSITION— CONNECTED    TERMS. 

Direction.— t/s^7^^  the  noun^  below,  compose  sentences  with  compound 
subjects ;  compose  others  in  which  the  verbs  shall  form  compound  predi^ 
cates ;  and  others  in  which  the  adjectives,  the  adverbs,  and  the  phraser 
shall  form  compound  modifiers : — 

In  some  let  there  be  three  or  more  connected  terms.  Observe  Rule, 
Lesson  21,  for  punctuation.    Let  your  sentences  mean  something. 

Nouns. 
'^Washington,  beauty,  grace,  Jefferson,  symmetry,  lightning,  Lincoln, 
electricity,  copper,  silver,  flowers,  gold,  rose,  lily. 


Review,  53 


Veebs. 

Examine,  sing,  pnll,  push,  repojpt,  shout,  loy%  hate,  like,  scream, 
loathe^ approve^ f ear/bbey,  refine,^op,  elevate,  skip, disapprove. 

Adjectives. 

Direction.— /S'ee  Caution^  Lesson  13. 

Bright,  acute,  patient,  careful,  apt,  forcible,  simple,  homely,  happy, 


short,  pithy,  deep,  jolly,  mercurial,  precipitous. 

Adveebs. 

Direction. — See  Caution,  Lesson  15. 

Neatly,  slowly,  carefully,  sadly,  now,  here,  never,  hereafter. 


On  sea  ;  in  the  city  ;  by  day  ;  on  land  ;  by  night  ;  in  the  country  ; 
by  hook  ;  across  the  ocean  ;  by  crook  ;  for  weal ;  over  the  lands  ;  for 
woe  ;  along  the  level  road  ;  up  the  mountains. 


LESSON  i4. 

REVIEW. 

Capital  Letters  and  Punctuation. 

Direction. —6^u'e  the  reason  for  every  capital  letter  and  for  every  mark 
of  punctuation  used  helow : — 

1.  The  sensitive  parts  of  the  body  are  covered  by  the  cuticle,  or  skin. 
2.  The  degrees  of  A.B.,  A.M.,  D.D.,  and  LL.D.  are  conferred  by  the 
colleges  and  universities  of  the  country.  3.  Oh,  I  am  so  happy !  4. 
Fathers  and  mothers,  sons  and  daughters  rejoice  at  the  news.  5.  Plants 
are  nourished  by  the  earth,  and  the  oarbon  of  the  air.     6.  A  tide  of 


54  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

American  travelers  is  constantly  flooding  Europe.  7.  The  tireless, 
sleepless  sun  rises  above  the  horizon,  and  climbs  slowly  and  steadily  to 
the  zenith.  8.  He  retired  to  private  life  on  half  pay,  and  the  income  of 
-a  large  estate  in  the  South. 

Direction. — Write  these  expressions,  using  capital  Utters  and  marhs 
of  punctuation  where  they  belong : — 

1.  a  fresh  riiddy  and  beardless  french  youth  replied  2.  maj,  cal, 
bu,  p  m,  rev,  no,  hon,  ft,  w,  e,  oz,  mr,  n  y,  a  b,  mon,  bbl,  st  3.  o  father 
o  father  i  cannot  breathe  here  .  4.  ha  ha  that  sounds  well  5.  the  edict 
of  nantes  was  established  by  henry  the  great  of  f  ranee  6.  mrs,  vs,  co, 
esq,  yd,  pres,  u  s,  prof,  o,  do,  dr  7.  hurrah  good  news  good  news 
8.  the  largest  fortunes  grow  by  the  saving  of  cents  and  dimes  and 
dollars  9.  the  baltie  sea  lies  between  Sweden  and  russia  10.  the  mis- 
sissippi  river  pours  into  the  gulf  of  mexico  11.  supt,  capt,  qt,  ph  d, 
p,  cr,  i  e,  doz  13.  benjamin  franklin  was  born  in  boston  in  1706  and 
died  in  1790 

Direction. — Correct  all  these  errors  in  capitalizaiion  and  punctuation, 
and  give  your  reasons : — 

1.  Oliver  cromwell  ruled,  over  the  english  People,  2.  halloo,  i 
must  speak  to  You  !  3.  John  Milton,  went  abroad  in  Early  Life,  and, 
stayed,  for  some  time,  with  the  Scholars  of  Italy,  4.  Most  Fuel  con- 
sists of  Coal  and  Wood  from  the  Forests  5.  books  are  read  for  Pleasure, 
and  the  Instruction  and  improvement  of  the  Intellect,  6.  In  rainy 
weather  the  feet  should  be  protected  by  overshoes  or  galoches  7.  hark 
they  are  coming  !  8.  A,  neat,  simple  and  manly  style  is  pleasing  to 
Us.  9.  alas  poor  thing  alas,  10.  i  fished  on  a,  dark,  and  cool,  apd 
mossy,  trout  stream. 


LIiS©li   ti. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

1.  By  tjie  streets  of  By-and-by,  one  arrives  at  the  house  of  Never.— 
Span.  Prov. 

2.  The  winds  and  waves  are  always  on  the  side  of  the  ablest  navi- 
gators,— Gibbon, 

3.  The  axis  of  the  earth  sticks  out  visibly  through  the  center  of  each 
and  every  town  or  city. — Holmes. 

4.  The  arrogant  Spartan,  with  a  French-like  glorification,  boasted 
forever  of  little  Thermopylae. — De  Qwincey. 

5.  The  purest  act  of  knowledge  is  always  colored  by  some  feeling  of 
pleasure  or  pain. — Hamilton. 

6.  The  thunder  of  the  great  London  journals  reverberates  through 
every  clime. — Marsh. 

7.  The  cheeks  of  William  the  Testy  were  scorched  into  a  dusky  red 
by  two  fiery  little  gray  eyes. — Irving. 

8.  The  study  of  natural  science  goes  hand  in  hand  *  with  the  culture 
of  the  imagination. — TyndaU. 

9.  The  whole  substance  of  the  winds  is  drenched  and  bathed  and 
washed  and  winnowed  and  sifted  through  and  through  by  this  baptism 
in  the  sea. — Swain. 

10.  The  Arabian  Empire  stretched  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Chinese 
.Wall,  and  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  sea  to  those  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. — Draper. 

11.  One  half  of  all  known  materials  consists  of  oxygen. — Cooke. 

12.  The  range  of  thirty  pyramids,  even  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
looked  down  on  the  plain  of  Memphis. — Stanley. 

*  Band  in  hand  may  be  treated  as  one  adverb,  or  vMh  may  be  supplied. 


56 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


WRITTEN     PARSING. 

Direction. — Parse  the  sentences  of  Lesson  25  according  to  this  Model 
for  Written  Parsing. 


Nouns. 

Pron. 

Verbs. 

Adj. 

Adv. 

Prep. 

C(wy. 

Int. 

Ist 
sentence. 

streets, 
By-and- 

house. 
Never. 

one. 

arrives. 

the,  the. 

By,  of, 

at,  of. 

2d 
Bentence. 

To  the  Teac/icr.— Until  the  Subdivisions  and  Modifications  of  the  parts  of 
speech  are  reached,  Oral  and  Written  Parsing  can  be  only  a  classification  of 
the  words  in  the  sentence.  You  must  judge  how  frequently  a  lesson  like  this  is 
needed,  and  how  much  parsing  should  be  done  orally  day  by  day.  In  their  Oral 
Analysis  let  the  pupils  give  at  first  the  reasons  for  every  statement,  but  guard 
against  their  doing  this  mechanically  and  in  set  terms ;  and,  when  you  think  it  can 
safely  be  done,  let  them  drop  it.  But  ask  now  and  then,  whenever  you  think  they 
have  grown  careless  or  are  guessing,  for  the  reason  of  this,  that,  or  the  other  step  taken. 


LESSOfi  if. 


REVIEW. 

To  the  Teacher.— See  suggestions,  Lesson  16. 

Direction. — Review  from  Lesson  17  to  Lesson  21,  inclusive. 

G-ive  the  substance  of  the  "  Introductory  Hints  "  (tell,  for  example, 
what  such  words  as  long  and  there  may  be  expanded  into,  how  these 
expanded  forms  may  be  modified,  how  introduced,  what  the  intro- 
ductory words  are  called,  and  why,  etc.).  Memorize  and  illustrate  defi- 
nitions and  rules;  illustrate  fully  what  is  taught  of  the  position  of 
phrases,  and  of  the  punctuation  of  phrases,  connected  terms,  and  ex- 
clamatory expressions.     How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  ? 


Nouns  as  Object  Complements.  57 

LESSOli  SB. 

NOUNS    AS    OBJECT    COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  saying  Washington  captured,  we  do  not 
fully  express  the  action  performed  by  Washington.  If  we  add  a  noun 
and  ssuf^^asJiington  captured  Cornwallis,  we  complete  the  predicate  by 
naming  that  which  receives  the  action. 

Whatever  fills  out,  or  completes,  is  a  Complement.  As  Cornwallis 
completes  the  expression  of  the  action  by  naming  the  thing  acted  upon 
— the  object, — we  call  it  the  Object  Complement.  Connected  objects 
completing  the  same  verb  form  a  Compound  Object  Complement  j  as, 
Washington  captured  Cornwallis  and  his  army. 


DEFINITION.— The  Object  Complement  of  a  Sentence 
completes  the  predicate,  and  names  that  which  receives  the  act. 

The  complement  with  all  its  modifiers  is  called  the 
Modified  Complement. 

Analysis  and   Parsing. 
1.  Clear  thinking  makes  clear  writing. 

_  thinking  -  makesi    ,   vyntimj  Explanation.-ThQ  line  standing  for 

\  '                         r;^  the  object  complement  is  a  continuation 

V                               ^  of  the  predicate  line.    The  little  vertical 

\                                  \  line  only  touches  this  without  cutting  it. 

Oral  Analysis — Writing  is  the  object  complement;  clear  writing  is 
the  modified  complement,  and  makes  clear  writing  is  the  entire  predi- 
cate. 

2.  Austerlitz  killed  Pitt. 

3.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  destroyed  feudalism, 

4.  Liars  should  have  good  memories. 

5.  We  find  the  first  surnames  in  the  tenth  century. 

6.  God  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb. 


58  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

7.  Benjamin  Franklin  invented  the  lightning-rod. 

8.  At  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Oxford  took  and  held 
rank  with  the  greatest  schools  of  Europe. 

took  resolves 

Oxford  . 


\  ,  rarik 
held  / 


Tcee^^    ,  side 


9.  The  moon  revolves,  and  keeps  the  same  side  toward  us. 

10.  Hunger  rings  the  bell,  and  orders  up  coals  in  the  shape  of  bread 
and  butter,  beef  and  bacon,  pies  and  puddings. 

11.  The  history  of  the  Trojan  war  rests  on  the  authority  of  Homer, 
and  forms  the  subject  of  the  noblest  poem  of  antiquity. 

12.  Every  stalk,  bud,  flower,  and  seed  displays  a  figure,  a  proportion, 
a  harmony,  beyond  the  reach  of  art. 

13.  The  natives  of  Ceylon  build  houses  of  the  trunk  and  thatch  roofs 
with  the  leaves,  of  the  cocoa-nut  palm. 

14.  Richelieu  exiled  the  mother,  oppressed  the  wife,  degraded  the 
brother,  and  banished  the  confessor,  of  the  king. 

15.  James  and  John  study  and  recite  grammar  and  arithmetic. 

Jftmea  study  grammar 

JoTin 


recite 


arithmetic 


LESSOU  ii. 


NOUNS    AND    ADJECTIVES    AS    ATTRIBUTE 
COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  subject  presents  one  idea ;  the  predicate, 
another,  and  asserts  it  of  the  first.  Corn  is  growing  presents  the  idea 
of  the  thing,  corn,  and  the  idea  of  the  act,  growing,  and  asserts  the  act 
of  the  thing.  Corn  growing  lacks  the  asserting  word,  and  Corn  is  lacks 
the  word  denoting  the  idea  to  be  asserted. 

In  logic,  the  asserting  word  is  called  the  copula — it  shows  that  the 


Nouns  and  Adjectives  as  Attribute  Complements.    59 

two  ideas  are  coupled  into  a  thought, — and  the  word  expressing  the  idea 
asserted  is  called  the  predicate.  But,  as  one  word  often  performs  both 
offices,  e.  g.,  Corn  grows,  and,  as  it  is  in  dispute  whether  ajiy  word  can 
assert  without  expressing  something  of  the  idea  asserted,  we  pass  this 
distinction  by  as  not  essential  in  grammar,  and  call  both  that  which 
asserts  an^hat  which  expresses  the  idea  asserted,  by  one  name — the 
predicate.* 

The  maple  leaves  become.  The  verb  become  does  not  make  a  complete 
predicate;  it  does  not  fully  express  the  idea  to  be  asserted.  The  idea 
may  be  completely  expressed  by  adding  the  adjective  red,  denoting  the 
quality  we  wish  to  assert  of  leaves  or  attribute  to  them — The  maple 
leaves  become  red. 

'  Lizards  are  reptiles.  The  noun  reptiles,  naming  the  cla^  of  the  an- 
imals called  lizards,  performs  a  like  office  for  the  asserting  word  are. 
Holfe's  wife  was  Pocahontas.  Pocahontas  completes  the  predicate  by 
presenting  a  second  idea,  which  ivas  asserts  to  be  identical  with  that  of 
the  subject. 

When  the  completing  word  expressing  the  idea  to  be  attributed  does 
not  unite  with  the  asserting  word  to  make  a  single  verb,  we  distinguish 
it  as  the  Attribute  Complement.  Connected  attribute  complements  of 
the  same  verb  form  a  Compound  Attribute  Complement. 

Most  grammarians  call  the  adjective  and  the  noun,  when  so  used,  the 
Predicate  Adjective  and  the  Predicate  Noun. 


DEFINITION.— The  Attrihute  Complement  of  a  Sentence 
completes  the  predicate  and  belongs  to  the  subject. 

Analysis    and   Parsing. 
1.  Slang  is  vulgar. 

Slang        is  v    mclgar  Escplanation.-ThQ  line  standing  for  the 

'■ — I  ^  attribute  complement  is,  like  the  object  line, 

a  continuation  of  the  predicate  line ;  but  notice  that  the  line  which  sepa- 

*  We  may  eall  the  verb  the  predicate  ;  but,  when  it  is  followed  by  a  complement, 
It  is  an  incomplete  predicate. 


6o  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

rates  the  incomplete  predicate  from  the  complement  slants  toward  the  sub- 
ject to  show  that  the  complement  is  an  attribute  of  it. 

Oral  AnMy sis. —  Vulgar  is  the  attribute  complement,  completing  the 
predicate  and  expressing  a  quality  of  slang;  is  vulgar  is  the  entire  pred- 
icate. 

2.  The  sea  is  fascinating  and  treacherous. 

3.  The  mountains  are  grand,  tranquil,  and  lovable. 

4.  The  Saxon  words  in  English  are  simple,  homely,  and  substantial. 

5.  The  French  and  the  Latin  words  in  English  are  elegant,  dignified, 
and  artificial. 

6.  The  ear  is  the  ever-open  gateway  of  the  soul. 

7.  The  verb  is  the  life  of  the  sentence. 

8.  Good-breeding  is  surface-Christianity. 

9.  A  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green. 

Explanation. — The  subject  names  that  of  which  the  speaker  says 
something.  The  terms  in  which  he  says  it, — the  predicate, — he,  of 
course,  assumes  that  the  hearer  already  understands.  Settle,  then, 
which — plant  or  ivy — Dickens  supposed  the  reader  to  know  least  about, 
and  which,  therefore,  Dickens  was  telling  hitn  about  ;  and  you  settle 
which  word — plant  or  ivy — is  the  subject.  (Is  it  not  the  writer's  poeti- 
cal conception  of  "  the  green  ivy"  that  the  reader  is  supposed  not  to 
?) 


10.  The  highest  outcome  of  culture  is  simplicity. 

11.  Stillness  of  person  and  steadiness  of  features  are  signal  marks  of 
good-breeding. 

12.  The  north  wind  is  full  of  courage,  and  puts  the  stamina  of  en- 
durance into  a  man. 

13.  The  west  wind  is  hopeful,  and  has  promise  and  adventure  in  it. 

14.  The  east  wind  is  peevishness  and  mental  rheumatism  and  grum- 
bling, and  curls  one  up  in  the  chimney-corner. 

15.  The  south  wind  is  fuU  of  longing  and  unrest  and  effeminate 
suggestions  of  luxurious  ease. 


Attribute  Complements — Continued,  6i 

LESSON  30. 

ATTRIBUTE    COMPLEMENTS— CONTHNTUED. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  He^ent  out  as  mate  and  came  back  captain. 

^  JExpl»nation.—Mate,  like  captain^  is  an 

~~]  attribute  complement.    Some  would  say 

^^    ■         that  the  conjunction  as  connects  mate  to 


I  (^j        ^  Tie;  but  we  think  this  connection  is  made 

xe;  came   ^    captain  through  the   verb  went,   and  that  as  is 

^  simply  introductory.    This  is  indicated  in 

the  diagram. 

2.  The  sun  shines  bright  and  hot  at  midday. 

3.  Velvet  feels  smooth,  and  looks  rich  and  glossy. 

4.  She  grew  tall,  queenly,  and  beautiful. 

5.  Plato    and    Aristotle  are  called    the  two  head-springs  of  all 
philosophy. 

6.  Under  the  Roman  law,  every  son  was  regarded  as  a  slave. 

7.  He  came  a  foe  and  returned  a  friend. 

8.  I  am  here.     I  am  present. 

Explanation. — The  office  of  an  adverb  sometimes  fades  into  that  of 
an  adjective  attribute  and  cannot  be  distinguished  from  it.  Here,  like 
an  adjective,  seems  to  complete  am,  and,  like  an  adverb,  to  modify  it. 
From  their  form  and  usual  function,  here  should,  in  this  sentence,  be 
called  an  adverb,  and  present  an  adjective. 

9.  This  book  is  presented  to  you  as  a  token  of  esteem  and  gratitude. 

10.  The  warrior  fell  back  upon  the  bed  a  lifeless  corpse. 

11.  The  apple  tastes  and  smells  delicious. 

12.  Lord  Darnley  turned  out  a  dissolute  and  insolent  husband. 

13.  In  the  fable  of  the  discontented  pendulum,  the  weights  hung 
speechless. 

14.  The  brightness  and  freedom  of  the  New  Learning  seemed  incar- 
nate in  the  young  and  scholarly  Sir  Thomas  More. 

15.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  lived  and  died  the  darling  of  the  Court,  and  the 
gentleman  and  idol  of  the  time. 


62  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

OBJECTIVE    COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory  Hints.— jETe  made  the  wall  white.  Here  made  does  not 
fully  express  the  action  performed  upon  the  wall.  We  do  not  mean  to 
say,  He  made  the  white  wall,  but,  He  made-white  {whitened)  the  wall. 
White  helps  made  to  express  the  action,  and  at  the  same  time  it  denotes 
the  quality  attributed  to  the  wall  as  the  result  of  the  action. 

They  made  Victoria  queen.  Here  made  does  not  fully  express  the 
action  performed  upon  N^ictoria.  They  did  not  make  Victoria,  but 
made-queen  {crowned)  Victoria.  Qu£en  helps  made  to  express  the 
action,  and  at  the  same  time  denotes  the  office  to  which  the  action  raised 
Victoria. 

A  word  that,  like  the  adjective  white  or  the  noun  queen,  helps  to  com- 
plete the  predicate  and  at  the  same  time  belongs  to  the  object  comple- 
ment, differs  from  an  attribute  complement  by  belonging  not  to  the 
subject  but  to  the  object  complement,  and  so  is  called  an  Objective 
Complement. 

As  the  objective  complement  denotes  what  the  receiver  of  the  act  is 
made  to  be,  in  fact  or  in  thought,  it  is  sometimes  called  the  factitive 
complement  or  the  factitive  object  (Lat.  facere,  to  make). 

Some  of  the  other  verbs  which  are  thus  completed  are  call,  think, 
choose,  and  name. 


DEFINITION.— The  Objective  Complement   completes  the 
predicate  and  belongs  to  the  object. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 
1.  They  made  Victoria  queen. 

T7ie7/        made  ^  queen  ,  Victoria         Explanation. —The  line  that  sepa- 
rates made  from  queen  slants  toward 
the  object  complement  to  show  that  qiteen  belongs  to  the  object. 

Oral  Analysis.— Queen  is  an  objective  complemerit  completing  made 


Composition — Complements,  63 

and  belonging  to  Victoria  ;  made  Victoria  queen  is  the  complete  pred- 
icate. 

2.  Some  one  has  called  the  eye  the  window  of  the  soul. 

3.  Destmy  had  made  Mr.  Churchill  a  schoolmaster. 

4.  Pre^dent  Hayes  chose  the  Hon.  Wm.  M.  Evarts  Secretary  of 
State. 

5.  After  a  break  of  sixty  years  in  the  ducal  line  of  the  English 
nobility,  James  I.  created  the  worthless  Villiers  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham. 

6.  We  should  consider  time  as  a  sacred  trust. 

Explanation. — As,  may  be  used  simply  to  introduce  an  objective 
complement. 

7.  Ophelia  and  Polonius  thought  Hamlet  really  insane. 

8.  The  President  and  the  Senate  appoint  certain  men  ministers  to 
foreign  courts. 

9.  Shylock  would  have  struck  Jessica  dead  beside  him. 

10.  Custom  renders  the  feelings  blunt  and  callous. 

11.  Socrates  styled  beauty  a  short-lived  tyranny. 

12.  Madame  de  Stael  calls  beautiful  architecture  frozen  music. 

13.  They  named  the  state  New  York  from  the  Duke  of  York. 

14.  Henry  the  Great  consecrated  the  Edict  of  Nantes  as  the  very  ark 
of  the  constitution. 


LESSOR  St. 

COMPOSITION— COMPLEMENTS. 

Caution,— Be  careful  to  distinguish  an  adjective  com- 
plement from  an  adverb  modifier. 

Explanation. — Mary  arrived  safe.  We  here  wish  to  tell  the  condition 
of  Mary  on  her  arrival,  and  not  the  manner  of  her  arriving.  My  head 
feels  bad  (is  in  a  bad  condition,  as  perceived  by  the  sense  of  feeling). 
The  sun  shines  bright  (is  bright— quality,— as  perceived  by  its  shining). 


64  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


When  the  idea  of  Ijeing  is  prominent  in  the  verb,  as  in  the  examples 
above,  you  see  that  the  adjective,  and  not  the  adverb,  follows. 

Direction. — Justify  the  use  of  these  adjecii'oes  and  adverbs: — 

1.  The  boy  is  running  wild. 

2.  The  boy  is  running  wildly  about. 

3.  They  all  arrived  safe  and  sound. 

4.  The  day  opened  bright. 

5.  He  felt  awkward  in  the  presence  of  ladies. 

6.  He  felt  around  awkwardly  for  his  chair. 

7.  The  sun  shines  bright. 

8.  The  sun  shines  brightly  on  the  tree-tops. 

9.  He  appeared  prompt  and  willing. 

10.  He  appeared  promptly  and  willingly. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  and  give  your  reasons:— 

1.  My  head  pains  me  very  bad. 

2.  My  friend  has  acted  very  strange  in  the  matter. 

3.  Don't  speak  harsh. 

4.  It  can  be  bought  very  cheaply. 

5.  I  feel  tolerable  well. 

6.  She  looks  beautifully. 

Direction. — Join  to  each  of  the  nounSy  below,  three  appropriate  adjec- 
tives expressing  the  qualities  as  assumed,  and  tlien  make  complete 
sentences  by  asserting  these  qualities : — 

Hard  J  ,  . 

Model.— hriiile  >  glass.     Glass  is  hard,  brittle,  and  transparent, 

transparent  ) 

Coal,  iron,  Niagara  Falls,  flowers,  war,  ships. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  containing  these  nmins  as  attribute 
eomplements : — 
Emperor,  mathematician,  Longfellow,  Richmond. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences,  using  these  verbs  as  predicates,  a/nd 
these  pronouns  as  attribute  complements  : — 
Is,  was,  might  have  been ;  I,  we,  he,  she,  they. 


Nouns  as  Adjective  Modifiers,  65 


Remark. — Notice  that  these  forms  of  the  pronouns — /,  we^  thou,  hey 
she,  ye,  they,  and  who— are  never  used  as  object  complements  or  as 
prmcipal  wopds  in  prepositional  phrases ;  and  that  me,  us,  thee,  him, 
her,  them,  and  whom  are  never  used  as  subjects  or  as  attribute  comple- 
ments of  sentences. 

IDirection.— Compose  sentences  in  which  each  of  th£  following  verbs 
sholl  have  two  complements — the  one  an  object  complementf  the  other  an 
objective  complement : — 

Let  some  object  complements  be  pronouns,  and  let  some  objective 
complements  be  introduced  by  as. 

Model.— They  call  m^  chief.  We  regard  composition  dw  very  impor- 
tant. 

Make,  appoint,  consider,  choose,  call. 


LESSOR  33. 

NOUNS  AS  ADJECTIVE   MODIFIERS. 

Introductory  Hints. — Solomon's  temple  was  destroyed.  Solomon's 
limits  temple  by  telling  what  or  whose  temple  is  spoken  of,  and  is,  there- 
fore, a  modifier  of  it. 

The  relation  of  Solomon  to  the  temple  is  expressed  by  the  apostrophe 
and  s  i's)  added  to  the  noun  Solomon.  When  s  has  been  added  to  the 
noun  to  denote  more  than  one,  this  relation  of  possession  is  expressed 
by  the  apostrophe  alone  (') ;  as,  boys'  hats.  This  same  relation  of  pos- 
session may  be  expressed  by  the  preposition  of;  Solomon'' s  temple  = 
the  temple  of  Solomon. 

Dom  Pedro,  the  emperor,  was  welcomed  by  the  Americans.  The  noun 
emperor  modifies  Dom  Pedro  by  telling  what  Dom  Pedro  is  meant. 
Both  words  name  the  same  person. 

Solomon' s  audi  emperor,  like  adjectives,  modify  nouns;  but  they  are 
names  of  things,  and,  besides,  when  modified,  are  modified  by  adjec- 
tives and  not  by  adverbs ;  as,  the  wise  Solomon's  temple,  etc. ;  Dom  Pedro, 


66  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

the  Brazilian  emperor,  etc.     These  are  conclusive  reasons  for  calling 
them  nouns. 

They  represent  two  kinds  of  Noun  Modifiers— the  Possessive  and 
the  Explanatory. 


Analysis  and    Parsing. 

1.  Elizabeth's  favorite,  Raleigh,  was  beheaded  by  James  I. 

Explanation.— Raleigh  is  written 
favorite  (itdkigh)   .  was  beheaded  on  the  subject  line,  because  it  aud 

favorite  name  the  same  person  ;  but 
Raleiyh  is  enclosed  within  curves  to 
~  show  that   favorite    is    the  proper 

grammatical  subject. 

Oral  Analysis.— Elizabeth's  and  Raleigh  are  modifiers  of  the  subject, 
the  first  telling  whose  favorite  is  meant,  the  second  what  or  which 
favorite.    Elizabeth* s  favorite,  Raleigh  is  the  modified  subject. 

2.  The  best  features  of  King  James's  translation  of  the  Bible  are 
derived  from  Tyndale's  version. 

3.  St.  Paul,  the  apostle,  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Nero. 

4.  A  fool's  bolt  is  soon  shot. 

5.  The  tadpole,  or  poUiwog,  becomes  a  frog. 

6.  An  idle  brain  is  the  devil's  workshop. 

7.  Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,  was  born  in  year  569  and  died  in  632. 

8.  They  scaled  Mount  Blanc — a  daring  feat. 


Theu    I    scaled     ,  Mount  Blanc  (    feat     \ 


Explanation. —Feat  is  explanatory  of  the  sentence,  They  scaled  Mount 
Blanc,  and  in  the  diagram  it  stands,  enclosed  in  curves,  on  a  short  line 
placed  after  the  sentence  line. 

9.  Bees  communicate  to  each  other  the  death  of  the  queen,  by  a  rapid 
interlacing  of  the  antennaB. 


Composition — Nouns  as  Adjective  Modifiers,       67 

£:xplanatio^. — Each  other  may  be  treated  as  one  term,  or  emh  may 
be  made  eifplanatory  of  6ees. 

10.  The  lamp  of  a  man's  life  has   three  wicks — brain,  blood,  and 
breath. 

Explanation. — Several  words  may  together  be  explanatory  of  one. 

11.  The  turtle's  back-bone  and  breast-bone — its  shell  and  coat  of 
armor— are  on  the  outside  of  its  body. 


12.  Cromwell's  rule  as  Protector  began  in  the  year  1653  and  ended 
in  1658. 

Explanation. — As,  namely,  to  wit,  viz.,  i.  e.,  e.  g.,  and  that  is  may 
introduce  explanatory  modifiers,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  connect  them 
to  the  words  modified.  In  the  diagram  they  stand  like  as  in  Lesson  30. 
Protector  is  explanatory  of  Cromwell's. 

13.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  three  powerful  na- 
tions, namely,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  united  for  the  dismember* 
ment  of  Poland. 

14.  John,  the  beloyed  disciple,  lay  on  his  Master's  breast. 

15.  The  petals  of  the  daisy,  da^s-eye,  close  at  night  and  in  rainy 
weather. 


LESSOU   34, 


COMPOSITION— NOUNS    AS    ADJECTIVE 
MODIFIERS. 

COMMA— RULE.— An  Explanatory  Modifier ,  when  it  does 
not  restrict  tlie  modified  term  or  combine  closely  willi  it,  is  set  off* 
by  the  comma. 

*  See  foot-note,  Lesson  18. 


68  TJie  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Explanation.— jf%e  words  I  and  0  should  he  written  in  capital  letters. 
The  phrase  /  and  0  restricts  words,  that  is,  limits  its  application,  and 
no  comma  is  needed. 

Jacob's  favorite  sons,  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  were  RacheVs  children. 
The  phrase  Joseph  and  Benjamin  explains  sons  without  restricting, 
and,  therefore,  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

In  each  of  these  expressions,  I  myself,  we  loys,  William  the  Conqueror, 
the  explanatory  term  combines  closely  with  the  word  explained,  and  no 
comma  is  needed. 

Direction. — Give  the  reasons  for  the  insertion  or  the  omission  of  conn- 
mas  in  these  sentences : — 

1.  My  brother  Henry  and  my  brother  George  belong  to  a  boat-club. 

2.  The  author  of  Pilgrim's  Progress,  John  Bunyan,  was  the  son  of  a 
4^inker. 

3.  Shakespeare,  the  great  dramatist,  was  careless  of  his  literary  rep- 
utation. 

4.  The  conqueror  of  Mexico,  Cortez,  was  cruel  in  his  treatment  of 
Montezuma. 

5.  Pizarro,  the  conqueror  of  Peru,  was  a  Spaniard. 

6.  The  Emperors  Napoleon  and  Alexander  met  and  became  fast 
friends  on  a  raft  at  Tilsit. 

Direction. — Insert  c&mmas,  below,  where  they  are  needed,  and  give 
your  reasons : — 

1.  The  Franks  a  warlike  people  of  Germany-  gave  their  name  to 
France. 

2.  My  son  Joseph  has  entered  college. 

3.  You  blocks  !    You  stones  I    0  you  hard  hearts  ! 

4.  Mecca  a  city  in  Arabia  is  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  Mohammedans. 

5.  He  himself  could  not  go. 

6.  The  poet  Spenser  lived  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

7.  Elizabeth  Queen  of  England  ruled  from  1558  to  1603. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  containing  these  expressions  as  ex- 
planatory modifiers : — 

The  most  useful  metal  ;  the  capital  of  Turkey  ;  the  Imperial  City ; 


Nouns  as  Adverb  Modifiers.  69 

the  great  Eaglish  poets  ;    the   hermit ;    a  distinguished   American 
statesman. 

DirecTtion. — Punctuate  these  expreasionSj  cmd  employ  eaeh  of  them  in 
a  sentence : — 

See  Remark,  Lesson  21.    Omit  or,  and  note  the  effect. 

1.  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land .     2.  New  York  or  the  Empire 

State .     3.  New  Orleans  or  the  Cres«ent  City .    4.  The  five 

Books  of  Moses  or  the  Pentateuch. 

Memember  that  ('5)  and  (')  are  the  possessive  signs,  (') 
being  used  when  s  has  been  added  to  denote  more  than  one, 
('s)  in  other  cases. 

Direction. — Copy  the  foUotomgy  and  n^te  the  use  of  the  possessive 
sign : — 

The  lady*s  fan  ;  the  girl's  bonnet ;  a  dollar's  worth  ;  Bums's  poems  ; 
Brown  &  Co.'s  business  ;  a  day's  work  ;  men's  clothing  ;  children's 
toys  ;  those  girls'  dresses ;  ladies'  calls  ;  three  years'  interest ;  five 
dollars'  worth. 

Direction. — MaJce  possessive  modifiers  of  the  following  words,  and 
Join  them  to  appropriate  nouns : — 

Woman,  women  ;  mouse,  mice ;  buffalo,  buffaloes  ;  fairy,  fairies ; 
hero,  heroes  ;  baby,  babies  ;  calf,  calves. 

Caution, — Do  not  use  ('s)  or  (')  with  the  pronouns  its,  Ms, 
ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs. 


NOUNS    AS    ADVBRB    MODIFIERS. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  game  me  a  booh.    Here  we  have  what  maay 
grammarians  call  a  double  object.     Book,  naming  the  thing  acted  upon. 


70  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

they  call  the  direct  object ;  and  we,  naming  the  person  toward  whom  the 
act  is  directed,  the  indirect,  or  dative^  object. 

You  see  that  we  and  look  do  not,  like  Cornwallis  and  army,  in 
Washington  captured  Cornwallis  and  his  army,  form  a  compound  object 
complement ;  they  cannot  be  connected  by  a  conjunction,  for  they  do 
not  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  verb  gave.  The  meaning  is  not. 
He  gave  me  and  the  book. 

We  prefer  to  treat  these  so-called  indirect  objects,  which  generally 
name  the  person  to  or  for  whom  something  is  done,  as  phrase  moditers 
without  the  preposition.  If  we  change  the  order  of  the  words,  the  prep- 
osition must  be  supplied  ;  as,  He  gave  a  hook  to  me.  He  bought  me  a 
book  ;  He  bought  a  hook  for  me.  He  asked  me  a  question  ;  Ho  asked  a 
question  of  me. 

Teachj  tell,  send,  and  lend  are  other  examples  of  verbs  said  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  double  objects. 

Besides  these  so-called  indirect  objects,  nouns  denoting  measure, 
quantity,  weight,  time,  value,  distance,  or  direction  are  often  used  ad- 
verbially, being  equivalent  to  phrase  modifiers  without  the  preposition. 
We  walked  four  miles  an  hour.  It  weighs  one  pound.  It  is  worth  a 
dollar  a  yard.  I  went  Jiome  that  way.  The  wall  is  ten  feet,  six  inches 
high. 

The  idiom  of  the  language  does  not  often  admit  a  preposition  before 
nouns  denoting  measure,  direction,  etc.  In  your  analysis  you  need  not 
supply  one. 


Analysis  and   Parsing. 

1.  They  offered  Cassar  the  crown  three  times. 

TTi^    .    offered     ,  cromi  Explanation —  CcBsar,  the  so-called  dative 

object,  and  times,  the  noun  denoting  meas- 
ure, stand  in  the  diagram  on  lines  represent- 
ing the  principal  words  of  prepositional 
phrases.  But  there  are  no  prepositions  on 
the  slanting  lines,  nor  is  there  an  x  to  mark 
the  omission,  there  being  no  preposition  understood. 

€>ral  Analysis.^CcBsar  and  times,  without  prepositions,  perform  the 
office  of  adverb  phrases  modifying  the  predicate  offered. 


Review,  yi 


2.  We  p&j  the  President  of  the  United  States  $50,000  a  year. 

3.  He  sent  his  daughter  home  that  way. 

4.  I  gave  him  a  dollar  a  bushel  for  his  wheat,  and  ten  cents  a  pound 
for  his  sugar. 

5.  Shakespeare  was  fifty-two  years  old  the  very  day  of  his  death. 

6.  Serpents  cast  their  skin  once  a  year. 

/?.  The  famous  Charter  Oak  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  fell  Aug.  21,  1856. 
8.  Good  land  should  yield  its  owner  seventy-five  bushels  of  com  an 
acre. 

K   9.  On  the  fatal  field  of  Zutpheu,  Sept.  22,  1586>  his  attendants 
brought  the  wounded  Sir  Philip  Sidney  a  cup  of  cold  water. 

10.  He  magnanimously  gave  a  dying  soldier  the  water. 
.    11.  The  frog  lives  several  weeks  as  a  fish,  and  breathes  by  means 
of  gills. 

12.  Queen  Esther  asked  King  Ahasuerus  a  favor. 

13.  Aristotle  taught  Alexander  the  Great  philosophy. 

;  14.  The  pure  attar  of  roses  is  worth  twenty  or  thirty  dollars  an 
ounce. 
15.  Puff-balls  have  grown  six  inches  in  diameter  in  a  single  night. 


LEiiOli  i§. 


REVIEW.  ^^^^ 

To  the  Teacher.— See  euggestions,  Lesson  16. 

Direction.— i^meM'  from  Lesson  28  to  Lesson  35,  inclusive  : —  -^""^ 

Give  the  substance  of  the  *'  Introductory  Hints"  (for  example,  show    . 
clearly  what  two  things  are  essential  to  a  complete  predicate  ;  explain  -  -^v;^' 
what  is  meant  by  a  complement;  distinguish  clearly  the  three  kinds  of  -^.^^.J^ 
complements  ;  show  what  parts  of  speech  may  be  employed  for  each, 
and  tell  what  general  idea — action,  quality,  class,  or  identity— is  ex- 
pressed by  each  attribute  or  objective  complement  in  your  illustrations, 
etc.).    Memorize  and  illustrate  definitions  and  rules;  explain  and  illus- 
trate fully  the  distinction  between  an  adjective  complement  and  an 
adverb  modifier ;  illustrate  what  is  taught  of  the  forms  7,  we,  etc.,  me, 
us,  etc. ;  explain  and  illustrate  the  use  of  the  possessive  sign. 


72  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESS©M  SF. 

VERBS  AS  ADJECTIVES  AND  AS  NOUNS— PAR- 
TICIPLES. 

Introductory  Hints. — Corn  grows;  Corn  growing.  Here  growing 
differs  from  grows  in  lacking  the  power  to  assert.  Growing  is  a  form 
of  the  verb  that  cannot,  like  grows,  make  a  complete  predicate,  because 
it  only  assumes  the  act — implies  that  the  com  does  the  act.  Corn  may 
be  called  its  assumed  subject. 

Birds,  singing,  delight  us.  Here  singing  does  duty  (1)  as  an  ad- 
jective, describing  birds  by  assuming  or  implying  an  action,  and  (2) 
as  a  verb  by  expressing  the  act  of  singing  as  going  on  at  the  time  they 
delight  us. 

Bg  singing  their  songs  birds  delight  us.  Here  singing  has  the  nature 
of  a  verb  and  that  of  a  noun.  As  a  verb  it  has  an  object  complement, 
songs  ;  and  as  a  noun  it  names  the  action,  and  stands  as  the  principal 
word  in  a  prepositional  phrase. 

Their  singing  so  sweetly  delights  us.  Here,  also,  singing  has  the  nat- 
ure of  a  verb  and  that  of  a  noun.  As  a  verb  it  has  an  adverb  modifier, 
sweetly,  and  as  a  noun  it  names  an  act  and  takes  a  possessive  modifier. 

This  form  of  the  verb  is  called  the  Participle  (Lat.  pa/rs,  a  part,  and 
capere,  to  take),  because  it  partakes  of  two  natures  and  performs  two 
offices — those  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective,  or  those  of  a  verb  and  a  noun. 
(For  definition  see  Lesson  131.) 

Singing  birds  delight  us.  Here  singi7ig  has  lost  its  verbal  nature, 
and  expresses  a  permanent  quality  of  birds — telling  what  kind  of  birds, — 
and  so  is  a  mere  adjective.  The  singing  of  the  birds  delights  us.  Here 
singing  is  simply  a  noun,  naming  the  act  and  taking  adjective 
modifiers. 

You  see  that  there  are  two  *  kinds  of  participles  ;  one  sharing  the 
nature  of  the  verb  and  that  of  the  adjective ;  the  other,  the  nature  of  the 

*  Many  grammarians  restrict  the  name  participle  to  the  first  kind,  calling  words  of 
the  second  kind  gerunds,  or  verbal  nouns,  because  they  suppose  all  verbal  forms  used 
as  nouns  to  have  a  dijfferent  origin,  and  to  have  once  had  a  different  ending.  But 
the  original  participles,  like  other  adjectives,  are  freely  used  as  nouns. 


Verbs  0S  Adjectives  and  as  Nouns — Participles.     73 

verb  and  that  of  the  noun.     The  common  endings  of  the  participle  are 
ing^  ed,  and  en. 

The  participle,  like  other  forms  of  the  verb,  may  be  followed  by  an 
object  complement  or  an  attribute  complement. 

Analysis   and    Parsing. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective  modifier. 

1.  Hearing  a  step,  I  turned. 

I   ,  turmed  £Jxplanation.— The  line  standing  for  the  participle  is 

\^  broken  ;  one  part  slants  to  represent  the  adjective  nature 

y-inff  t  step  of  the  participle,  and  the  other  is  horizontal  to  represent 

Y  Its  verbal  nature. 

Oral  Analysis.— The  phrase  hearing  a  step  is  a  modifier  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  *  the  principal  word  is  hearing,  which  is  completed  by  the  noun 
step  ;  step  is  modified  by  a. 

Parsing.— Bearing  is  a  form  of  the  verb  called  participle,  because  the 
action  expressed  by  it  is  merely  assumed,  and  it  shares  the  nature  of  an 
adjective  and  that  of  a  verb. 

2.  The  fat  of  the  body  is  fuel  laid  away  for  use. 

Explanation. — The  complement  is  here  modified  by  a  participle 
phrase. 

8.  The  spinal  marrow,  proceeding  from  the  brain,  extends  downward 
through  the  back-bone. 

4.  Van  Twiller  sat  in  a  huge  chair  of  solid  oak,  hewn  in  the  celebrated 
forest  of  the  Hague. 

Explanation.— The  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase  is  here 
modified  by  a  participle  phrase. 

5.  Lentulus,  returning  with  victorious  legions,  had  amused  the 
populace  with  the  sports  of  the  amphitheater. 

*  Logically,  or  in  sense,  hearing  a  step  modifles  the  predicate  also.  I  turned  when 
or  bacause  I  heard  a  step.-*  See  Lesson  79. 


74  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  attribute  complement. 

6.  The  natives  came  crowding  around. 

Explanation. — Crowding  here  completes  the  predicate  came,  and  be- 
longs to  the  subject  natives.  The  natives  are  represented  as  performing 
the  act  of  coming  and  the  accompanying  act  of  crowding.  The  assertive 
force  of  the.  predicate  came  seems  to  extend  over  both  verbs. 

7.  The  city  lies  sleeping. 

8.  They  stood  terrified. 

9.  The    philosopher  sat    buried  in 
thought. 

10.  The  old  miser  kept-grubbing  and 
saving  and  starving. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  objective  com^plement. 

11.  He  kept  me  waiting. 

Explanation. —  Waiting  completes  kept  and  relates  to  the  object  com- 
plement me.  Kept-waiting  expresses  the  complete  action  performed 
upon  me.  He  kept-waiting  me  =  He  detained  me.  The  relation  of 
waiting  to  me  may  be  seen  by  changing  the  form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  I  was 
kept  waiting.     See  Lesson  31. 

13.  I  found  my  book  growing  dull. 

Yr^  JSxplanaHon.— The  diasrram   represent- 

Vtoin9  V   dull  .        xv        V-  1  •     ^  v 

I  mg  the  phrase  complement  is  drawn  aoove 

/       found        JL       book       *^^  complement  line,  on  which  it  is  made 

I  '  ^   >    '  ^Q  ^^^^  l^y  means  of  a  support.    All  that 

\        stands  on  the  complement  line  is  regarded 

as  the  complement.     Notice  that  the  little  mark  before  the  phrase  points 

toward  the  object  complement.     Tlie  adjective  dull  completes  growing  and 

belongs  to  book,  the  assumed  subject  ot  growing. 

13.  He  owned  himself  defeated. 

14.  No  one  ever  saw  fat  men  heading  a  riot  or  herding  together  in 
turbulent  mobs. 

15.  I  felt  my  heart  beating  faster. 

16.  You  may  imagine  me  sitting  there. 

17.  Saul,  seeking  his  father's  asses,  found  himself  suddenly  turned 
into  a  king. 


Participles — Continued.  75 

LESi©l  38. 

PARTICIPLES— CONTINUED. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  principal  word  in  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

1.  We  receive  good  by  doing  good. 

Explanation. ^ThQ    line    representing   the 
We       receive    ,   r/ixxl  participle  here  is  broken  ;  the  first  part  rep- 

resents the  participle  as  a  noun,  and  the  other 
doing  I  good        as  a  Verb.     (Nouns  and  verbs  are  both  written 
on  horizontal  lines.) 

Oral  Analysis.— The  phrase  hy  doing  good  is  a  modifier  of  the  pred- 
icate ;  hy  introduces  the  phrase  ;  the  principal  word  is  doing,  which  is 
completed  by  the  noun  good. 

Parsing.— Doing  is  E  participle  ;  like  a  noun,  it  follows  the  preposi- 
tion hy  ;  and,  like  a  verb,  it  takes  an  object  complement. 

2.  Portions  of  the  brain  may  be  cut  off  without  producing  any  pain. 

3.  The  Coliseum  was  once  capable  of  seating  ninety  thousand  per- 
sons. 

4.  Success  generally  depends  on  acting  prudently,  steadily,  and 
vigorously. 

5.  You  cannot  fully  sympathize  with  suffering  without  having 
suffered.     {Suffering  is  here  a  noun.) 

The  participle  may  be  the  principal  word  in  a  phrase 
used  as  a  subject  or  as  an  object  complement. 

6.  Your  writing  that  letter  so  neatly  secured  the  position. 

Explanation  .—The  diagram  of  the 
subject  phrase  is  drawn  above  the  subject 
line.  All  that  rests  on  the  subject  line  is 
regarded  as  the  subject. 


76  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Oral  Analysis.— 1l\^q  phrase  yow  writing  that  letter  so  neatly  is  the 
subject  ;  the  principal  word  of  it  is  writing,  which  is  completed  by 
letter ;  writing,  as  a  noun,  is  modified  by  your^  and,  as  a  verb,  by  the 
adverb  phrase  so  neatly, 

7.  We  should  avoid  injuring  the  feelings  of  others. 

8.  My  going  there  will  depend  upon  my  father's  giving  his  consent. 

9.  Good  reading  aloud  is  a  rare  accomplishment. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  a  mere  noun  or  a  tnere 
adjective, 

10.  The  cackling  of  geese  saved  Rome. 

11.  Such  was  the  exciting  campaign,  celebrated  in  many*  a  long-for- 
gotten song. 

£ixplanation. — Many  modifies  %ong  as  modified  by  a  and  long- 
forgotten, 

12.  All  silencing  of  discussion  is  an  assumption-  of  infallibility. 

13.  He  was  a  squeezing,  grasping,  hardened  old  sinner. 

The  participle  may  be  used  in  independent  or  absolute 
phrases, 

14.  The  bridge  at  Ashtabula  giving  way,  the  train  fell  into  the 
/river. 

Explanation. — The  diagram  of  the  absolute  phrase,  which  consists 
of  a  noun  used  independently  with  a  participle,  stands  by  itself.  See 
Lesson  44. 

15.  Talking  of  exercise,  you  have  heard,  of  course,  of  Dickens's 
"constitutionals." 

*  ^^Manif/  man  in  Aif«;lo-Saxon  was  used  like  Grerman  mancher  mann,  Latin  multus 
vir,  and  the  like,  until  the  thirteenth  century  ;  when  the  article  was  inserted  to 
emphasize  the  distribution  before  indicated  by  the  singular  number." — Prof.  F.  A. 
March, 


Composition — Participles.  JJ 

COMPOSITION— PARTICIPLES. 

COMMA— RULE.— The  Participle  used  as  an  adjective  mod- 
ifier, with  the  words  belonging  to  it,  is  set  olf*  by  the  comma 
unless  restrictive. 

Explanation. — A  bird,  lighting  near  my  window,  greeted  me  with  a 
song.  The  bird  sittin^g  on  the  wall  is  a  wren.  Lighting  describes  with- 
out restricting;  sitting  restricts— limits  the  appUcation  of  bird  to  a  par- 
ticular bird. 

Direction. — Jiistify  the  punctuation  of  the  participle  phrases  in 
Lesson  37. 

Caution.^ln  using  a  participle  be  careful  to  leave  no  doubt 
as  to  what  you  intend  it  to  modify. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  in  arrangement,  and  punctuate, 
giving  your  reasons : — 

1.  A  gentleman  will  let  his  house  going  abroad  for  the  summer  to  a 
small  family  containing  all  the  improvements. 

2.  The  tx)wn  contains  fiity  houses  and  one  hundred  inhabitants  built 
of  brick. 

3.  Suit«  ready  made  of  material  cut  by  an  experienced  tailor  hand- 
somely trimmed  and  bought  at  a  bargain  are  offered  cheap. 

4.  Seated  on  the  topmost  branch  of  a  tall  tree  busily  engaged  in 
gnawing  an  acorn  we  espied  a  squirrel. 

5.  A  poor  child  was  found  in  the  streets  by  a  wealthy  and  benevolent 
gentleman  suffering  from  cold  and  hunger. 

Direction. — Recast  these  sentences,  making  the  reference  of  the  par- 
ticiple clear,  a7t,d  punctuating  correctly  : — 

*  An  expression  in  the  body  of  a  sentence  ia  set  off  hy  two  commae  ;  at  the  begin- 
ning or  at  the  end,  by  one  comma. 


78  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Model.— Climbing  to  the  top  of  the  hill  the  Atlantic  ocean  was  seen. 
Incorrect,  because  it  appears  that  the  ocean  did  the  climbing. 
Climbing  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  we  saw  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

1.  Entering  the  next  room  was  seen  a  marble  statue  of  Apollo. 

2.  By  giving  him  a  few  hints  he  was  prepared  to  do  the  work  well. 

3.  Desiring  an  early  start  the  horse  was  saddled  by  five  o'clock. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  each  of  these  three  participles 
shall  be  used  as  an  adjective  modifier,  as  the  principal  word  in  a  prep- 
ositional phrase,  as  the  principal  word  in  a  phrase  used  as  a  subject  or 
as  an  object  complement,  as  a  mere  adjective,  as  a  mere  noun,  and  in  a/n 
absolute  phrase  : — 

Buzzing,  leaping,  waving. 


VERBS    AS    NOUNS—INFINITIVES. 

Introductory  Hints. — /  came  to  see  you.  Here  the  verb  see,  like  the 
participle,  lacks  the  asserting  power — /  to  see  asserts  nothing.  See^ 
following  the  preposition  to,*  names  the  act  and  is  completed  by  you, 
and  so  does  duty  as  a  noun  and  as  a  verb.  In  office  it  is  like  tne  second 
kind  of  participles,  described  in  Lesson  37,  and  from  some  grammarians 
has  received  the  same  name— some  calling  both  gerunds,  and  others 
calling  both  infinitives.  It  ditfers  from  this  participle  in  form,  and  in 
following  only  the  preposition  to.     Came  to  see  =  came  for  seeing. 

This  form  of  the  verb  is  frequently  the  principal  word  of  a  phrase 
used  as  a  subject  or  as  an  object  complement  ;  as.  To  read  good  boohs 
is  profitable  ;  Hike  to  read,  good  boohs.  Here  also  the  form  with  to  is 
equivalent  to  the  participal  form  reading.  Reading  good  hooks  is  prof- 
itable. 

As  this  form  of  the  verb  names  the  action  in  an  indefinite  way,  with- 
out  limiting  it  to  a  subject,  we  call  it  the  Infinitive  (Lat.  infinitum, 
without  limit).     For  definition,  see  Lesson  131. 

*  For  the  discussion  of  lo  with  the  infinitive,  see  Lesson  134. 


Verbs  as  Nouns — Infinitives.  79 

Frequently  the  infinitive  expresses  purpose,  as  in  the  first  example 
given  above,  and  in  such  cases  to  expresses  relation,  and  performs  its 
full  function  as  a  preposition  ;  but  when  the  infinitive  phrase  is  used  as 
subject  or  as  object  complement,  the  to  expresses  no  relation.  It  serves 
only  to  introduce  the  phrase,  and  in  no  way  affects  the  meaning  of  the 
verb. 

The  infinitive,  like  other  forms  of  the  verb,  may  be  followed  by  the 
different  complements. 


Analysis   and    Parsing. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  an  adjective 
modifier  or  an  adverb  modifier. 

1.  The  hot-house  is  a  trap  to  catch  sunbeams. 

hot-house        is  ^   trap  Oral    Analysis.— To    in- 

N^  \    \  ^      troduces  the  phrase ;  catch 

\  catch  .  sunbeam      ^  ^^^  principal  word,  and 
sunbeams  completes  it 

Parsing.— To  is  a  preposition,  introducing  the  phrase  and  showing 
the  relation,  in  sense,  of  the  principal  word  to  trap  ;  catch  is  a  form  of 
the  verb  called  infinitive  ;  like  a  noun,  it  follows  the  preposition  to  and 
names  the  action,  and,  like  a  verb,  it  is  completed  by  sunbeams.     ~ 

2.  Richelieu's  title  to  command  rested  on  sublime  force  of  will  and 
decision  of  character, 

3.  Many  of  the  attempts  to  assassinate  William  the  Silent  were 
defeated. 

4.  We  will  strive  to  please  you. 

Explanation. — ^The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  adverbially  to  mod- 
ify the  predicate. 

5.  Ingenious  Art  steps  forth  to  fashion  and  refine  the  race. 

6.  These  harmless  delusions  tend  to  make  us  happy. 

Explanation. — Happy  completes  m^ke  and  relates  to  us. 


8o  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

7.  Wounds  made  by  words  are  hard  to  heal. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  adverbially  to  mod- 
ify the  adjective  JmrA.     To  heal=to  he  healed. 

8.  The  representative  Yankee,  selling  his  farm,  wanders  away  to  seek 
new  lands,  to  clear  new  cornfields,  to  build  another  shingle  palace,  and 
again  to  sell  off  and  wander. 

9.  These  apples  are  not  ripe  enough  to  eat. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  adverbially  to 
modify  the  adverb  enough.     To  eai—to  he  eaten. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  subject  or  com- 
plement. 

10.  To  be  good  is  to  be  great. 

X\  Explanation.— To,  in  each  of  these  phrases, 

he  ^pood  \  he  ^  crreat  ^^«^'«  °<^  relation-it  serves  merely  to  intro- 

^v-iz     _-.    x^;       ^  duce.    The  complements  good  and  great  are 

JL          •.           i.  adjectives  used  abstractly,  having  no  noun  to 

^^    I        ^    «^> ^gi^^g  ^Q 

11.  To  bear  our  fate  is  to  conquer  it. 

12.  To  be  entirely  just  in  our  estimate  of  others  is  impossible. 

13.  The  noblest  vengeance  is  to  forgive. 

14.  He  seemed  to  be  innocent. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  here  performs  the  office  of  an 
adjective.     To  he  innocent=innoce7d. 

15.  The  blind  men's  dogs  appeared  to  know  him. 

16.  We  should  learn  to  govern  ourselves. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  as  an  object  com 
plement. 

17.  Each  hill  attempts  to  ape  her  voice. 


Infinitives — Continued,  8 1 

LISSOI^  41. 

INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  after  a  preposition 

as  the  principal  term  of  another  phrase. 

1.  My  friend  is  about  to  leave  me. 

Explanati€ni. — The  preposition  aib<yut  In- 
troduces the  phrase  used  as  attribute  com- 
plement ;  the  principal  part  is  the  intiuitive 
^_  phrase  to  leave  me. 

2.  Paul  was  now  about  to  open  his  mouth. 

3.  No  way  remains  but  to  go  on. 

Explanation. — But  is  here  used  as  a  preposition. 

The  infinitive  and  its  assumed  subject  may  form  the 
principal  term  in  a  phrase  introduced  by  the  preposition 
for. 

"^.  For  us  to  linow  our  faults  is  profitable. 

"^ -^  Explanation.— For  introduces  the  sub- 

jmqw   f   faults  ject  phrasc ;  the  principal  part  of  the  en- 

I  Na^  tire  phrase  is  us  to  know  oitr  faults  ;  the 

principal  word  is  v^,  which  is  modified  by 
^V    I    ^    V    prqfitoMe         the  phrase  to  know  our  faults. 


5.  God  never  made  his  work  for  man  to  mend. 
Explanation.— The  principal  term  of  the  phrase  for  man  to  mend  is 

not  man,  but  man  to  mend. 

6.  For  a  man  to  be  proud  of  his  learning  is  the  greatest  ignorance. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  an  explanatory 
modifier. 

6 


82  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

7.  It  is  easy  to  find  fault. 

\  Xlxplanation — The  infinitive  phrase  to  find 

\   find   t  fault  f<^'^ii  explains  the  subject  it.     Read  the  sen- 

tenee  without  it,  and  you  will  see  the  real 

It  fy\^  .    is    ^   easy.         nature  of  the  phrase.    This  use  of  it  as  a  sub- 

^^~^"~"^""^'~~~"^~~"^~"     stitute  for  the  real  subject  is  a  very  common 

idiom  of  our  language.    It  allows  the  real  subject  to  follow  the  verb,  and 

thus  gives  the  sentence  balance  of  parts. 

8.  It  is  not  the  way  to  argue  down  a  vice  to  tell  lies  about  it. 

9.  It  is  natural  to  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope. 

10.  It  is  not  all  of  life  to  live. 

11.  This  task,  to  teach  the  young,  may  become  delightful. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  objective  complex 
ment, 

12.  He  made  me  wait. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  wait  (here  used  without  to)  completes 
made  and  relates  to  me.    He  made-wait  me=He  detained  me. 

See  "Introductory  Hints,"  Lesson  31,  and  participles  used  as  objec- 
tive complements.  Lesson  37.  Compare  I  saw  him  do  it  with  I  saw  him 
doing  it.  Compare  also  He  mnde  the  stick  bend — equaling  Me  m>ade- 
hend  (=  bent)  the  stick — with  He  made  the  stick  straight — equaling  He 
made-straight  {= straightened)  the  stick. 

The  relation  of  these  objective  complements  to  me,  him,  and  stick 
may  be  more  clearly  seen  by  changing  the  form  of  the  verb,  thus  :  I 
was  made  to  wait,  He  was  seen  to  do  it.  He  was  seen  doing  it,  The  stick 
was  made  to  bend.  The  stick  was  made  straight 

13.  We  found  the  report  to  be  true.* 

\', 

be    -s^  true 


:x 


Wd  >   Jbun^    ^  y\    I    report 


*  Some  prefer  to  treat  the  report  to  be  true  as  an  object  clause,  because  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  clause  that  the  report  is  tru£.  But  many  expressions  logically  equivalent 
are  entirely  different  in  grammatical  construction. 

If,  in  "  I  desire  him  to  be  promoted,"  him  to  be  promoted  is  a  clause  because  equiv- 


Infinitives — Continued,  83 

14.  He  commanded  the  bridge  to  be  lowered.* 

15.  I  saw  the  leaves  stir. 

Explanation. — Stir  is  an  infinitive  without  the  to. 

16.  Being  persuaded  by  PoppaBa,  Nero  caused  his  mother,  Agrippina, 
to  be  assassinated. 


INFINITIVES— CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  independently. \ 

Explanation. — In  the  diagram,  the  independent  element  must  stand 
by  itself. 

1.  England's  debt,  to  put  it  in  round  numbers,  is  $4,000,000,000. 

2.  Every  object  has  several  faces,  so  to  speak. 

3.  To  make  a  long  story  short,  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette 
were  executed. 


alent  to  that  he  shoiUd  be  promoted,  why  is  not  his  promotion  a  clause  in  "I  desire 
Ms  promotion  "  ? 

"I  saw  the  sun  rising.''''  "I  saw  the  7nsing  of  the  sun.''''  If  we  must  call  svn 
rising  a  clause,  why  not  call  the  rising  of  the  sun  a  clause  ?  In  both  expressions  mn 
names  the  actor  and  rising  denotes  the  act. 

Besides,  when  the  pupil  has  learned  that  he  is  a  subject  form  and  him  an  object 
form,  and  that  participles  and  infinitives  lack  the  asserting  element,  necessary  to  a 
true  predicate,  we  prefer  not  to  confuse  him  by  calling  him  the  subject  and  to  be  pro- 
moted the  predicate  of  a  clause. 

*  Notice  the  difference,  in  construction,  between  this  sentence  and  the  sentence  He 
commanded  him  to  lower  the  bridge.  Him  represents  the  one  to  whom  the  command 
is  given,  and  to  lower  the  bridge  is  the  object  complement.  This  last  sentence  =  He 
commanded  him  that  he  should  lower  the  bridge.  Compare  He  told  me  to  go  with  He 
told  (to)  mje  a  story ;  also  He  taught  me  to  read  with  He  taught  {to)  me  reading. 

t  These  infinitive  phrases  can  be  expanded  into  dependent  clauses.    See  Lesson  79. 

For  the  infinitive  after  as,  than,  etc.,  see  Lesson  63.  Participles  and  infinitives 
unite  with  other  verbs  to  make  compound  forms  ;  as,  have  walked,  shall  {to)  walk. 


84  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Infinitives  and   Participles. 
Miscellaneous. 

4.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  give  thanks  unto  tlie  Lord. 

5.  We  require  clothing  in  the  summer  to  protect  the  body  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun. 

6.  Rip  Van  Winkle  could   not  account    for  everything's   having 
changed  so. 

7.  This  sentence  is  not  too  diJBBcult  for  me  to  analyze. 

8.  The  fog  came  pouring  in  at  every  chink  and  keyhole. 
'  9.  Conscience,  her  first  law  broken,  wounded  lies. 

10.  To  be,  or  not  to  be, — that  is  the  question. 

11.  I  supposed  him  to  be  a  gentleman. 

12.  Food,  keeping  the  body  in  health  by  maldng  it  warm  and  repair- 
ing its  waste,  is  a  necessity. 

13.  1  will  teach  you  the  trick  to  prevent  your  being  cheated  another 
time. 

14.  She  threatened  to  go  beyond  the  sea,  to  throw  herself  out  of  the 
window,  to  drown  herself. 

15.  Busied  with  public  affairs,  the  council  would  sit  for  hours  smoking 
and  watching  the  smoke  curl  from  their  pipes  to  the  ceiling. 


COMPOSITION— THE    INFINITIVE. 

Direction.— C^aw^re  tliA  infinitixies  in  these  sentences  into  participles, 
and  the  participles  into  infinitives  : — 

Notice  that  to,  the  only  preposition  used  with  the  infinitive,  is 
changed  to  toward,  for,  of,  at,  in,  or  on,  when  the  infinitive  is  changed 
to  a  participle, 

1.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  it.  6.  There  is  a  time  to  laugh. 

2.  I  am  ashamed  to  be  seen  there.  7.  I  rejoice  to  hear  it. 

3.  She  will  be  grieved  to  hear  it.  8.  You  are  prompt  to  obey. 

4.  They    trembled    to  hear    such  9.  They  delight  to  do  it. 

words.  10.  I  am  surprised  at  seeing  you. 

6.  It  will  serve  for  amusing  the  11.  Stones  are  used  in    ballasting 
children.  vessels. 


Words  and  Phrases   Used  Independently.  85 

Direction. — Improxie  these  sentences  by  changing  the  participles  into 
infinitives,  and  the  infinitives  into  participles : — 

.  1.  We  began  ascending  the  moun-  3.  I  commenced  to  write  a  letter. 

tain.  4.  It  is  inconvenient  being  poor. 

2.  He  did  not  recollect  to  have  5.  It  is  not  wise  complaining. 

paid  it. 

Direction. —  Vary  these  sentences  as  in  th^  model : — 

Model. —Rising  early  is  healthful,  To  rise  early  is  healthful,  It  is 
healthful  to  rise  early,  For  one  to  rise  early  is  healthful. 

(Notice  that  the  explanatory  phrase  after  it  is  not  set  off  by  the 
comma.) 

1.  Reading  good  books  is  profitable.    4.  Indorsing    another's    paper  is 

2.  Equivocating  is  disgraceful.  dangerous. 

3.  Slandering  is  base.  5.  Swearing  is  sinful. 

Direction. — Write  nine  sentences^  in  three  of  which  the  infinitive 
shall  be  vsed  as  an  adjective,  in  three  as  an  adverb,  amd  in  three  as  a 
noun. 

Direction. —  Write  eight  sentences  in  which  tJiese  verbs  shall  be  fol- 
lowed by  an  infinitive  without  t  o : — 

Model.— Wq  saw  the  sun  smk  behind  the  mountain. 
Bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need,  and  see. 


LESiOH  44. 


WORDS    AND    PHRASES    USED    INDE- 
PENDENTLY. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  this  Lesson  we  wish  to  notice  words  and 
phrases  that  in  certain  uses  have  no  grammatical  connection  with  the 
rest^f  the  sentence. 


86  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  favlt,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars.  Dear  Brutus  serves 
only  to  arrest  attention,  and  is  independent  by  address. 

Poor  man  I  he  never  came  hack  again.  Poor  man  is  independent  by 
exclamation. 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me.  Rod  and  staff  simply  call 
attention  to  the  objects  before  anything  is  said  of  them,  and  are  inde- 
pendent by  pleonasm — a  construction  used  sometimes  for  rhetorical 
effect,  but  out  of  place  and  improper  in  ordinary  speech. 

His  master  being  absent,  the  business  was  neglected.  His  master  be- 
ing absent  logically  modifies  the  verb  was  neglected  by  assigning  the 
cause,  but  the  phrase  has  no  connective  expressed  or  understood,  and 
so  is  grammatically  independent.     This  is  called  the  absolute  phrase. 

His  conduct,  generally  speaking,  was  honorable.  Speaking  is  a  par- 
ticiple without  connection,  and  with  the  adverb  generally  forms  an  in- 
dependent phrase. 

To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  wrong.  The  infinitive  phrase  is  inde- 
pendent. 

The  adverbs,  well,  now,  why,  there  are  sometimes  independent,  as ; 
Well,  life  is  an  enigma;  Now,  that  is  strange;  Why,  it  is  already 
noon ;     There  are  pitch-pine  Yankees  and  white-pine  Yankees. 

Interjections  are  without  grammatical  connection,  as  you  have 
learned,  and  so  are  independent. 

Whatever  is  enclosed  within  marks  of  parenthesis  is  also  independent 
of  the  rest  of  the  sentence;  as,  I  stake  my  fame  {and  I  had  fame),  my 
heart,  my  hope,  my  soul,  upon  this  cast. 


Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  The  loveliest  things  in  life,  Tom,  are  but  shadows. 
Explanation. — Tom  is  independent  by  address,  and  in  the  diagram 

must  stand  by  itself.     But  is  used  as  an  adjective  modifying  shadows. 

2.  There  are  one  story  intellects,  two  story  intellects,  and  tliree 
story  intellects  with  skylights. 

Explanation. — Often,  as  here,  there  is  used  idiomatically,  merely  to 


Composition — Independent   Words  and  Phrases.     8/ 

throw  the  subject  after  the  verb,  the  idea  of  place  having  faded  out  of 
it.  To  express  place  another  there  may  follow  the  predicate;  as,  There 
is  gold  there. 

3.  Ah  I  then  and  there  was  hurrying  to  and  fro. 

4.  Hope  lost,  all  is  lost. 

5.  The  smith,  a  mighty  man  is  he. 

6.  Why,  this  is  not  revenge. 

7.  Well,  this  is  the  forest  of  Arden. 

8.  Now,  there  is  at  Jerusalem,  by  the  sheep-market,  a  pool. 

9.  To  speak  plainly,  your  habits  are  your  worst  enemies. 

10.  No  accident  occurring,  we  shall  arrive  to-morrow. 

11.  The  teacher  being  sick,  there  was  no  school  Friday. 

12.  Mr.  President,  I  shall  enter  on  no  encomium  upon  Massachusetts. 

13.  Properly  speaking,  there  can  be  no  chance  in  our  affairs. 

14.  But  the  enemies  of  tyranny — their  path  leads  to  the  scaffold, 

15.  She  (oh,  the  artfulness  of  the  woman  !) 
Threat  ^  l)ega.n                 managed  the  matter  extremely  well. 

16.  A  day  later  (Oct.  19,  1812)  began  the 
fatal  retreat  of  the  Grand  Army,  from  Mos- 

day       cow. 

~"V~       See  Lesson  35. 


LEiSOli  4§. 


COMPOSITION— INDEPENDENT     WORDS    AND 
PHRASES. 

COMMA— BULE.—Words  and  phrases  independent  or  nearly  so 
are  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Remark. — Interjections,  as  you'  have  seen,  are  usually  followed  by  the 
exclamation  point ;  and  there,  used  merely  to  introduce,  is  never  set  off 
by  the  comma.  When  the  break  after  pleonastic  expressions  is  slight, 
as  in  (5),  Lesson  44,  the  comma  is  used ;  but  if  it  is  more  abrupt,  as 


88  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

in  (14),  the  dash  is  required.  If  the  independent  expression  can  be 
omitted  without  affecting  the  sense,  it  may  be  enclosed  within  marks 
of  parenthesis,  as  in  (15)  and  (16).  (For  the  uses  of  the  dash  and  the 
marks  of  parenthesis,  see  Lesson  148.) 

Words  and  phrases  nearly  independent  are  those  which  like  however, 
of  course,  indeed,  in  short,  hy  the  hye,  for  instance,  and  accordingly  do 
not  modify  any  word  or  phrase  alone,  but  rather  the  sentence  as  a 
whole;  as,  Lee  did  not,  1iX)wever,  follow  Washington's  orders. 

Direction. —  Write  sentences  illustrating  the  several  hinds  of  inde- 
pendent  expressions,  and  punctuate  according  to  the  Rule  as  explained. 

Direction. — Write  short  sentences  in  wJiich  these  words  and  phrases, 
used  in  a  manner  nearly  independent,  shall  occur,  and  punctuate 
them  prope/rly:  — 

In  short,  indeed,  now  and  then,  for  instance,  accordingly,  moreover, 
however,  at  least,  in  general,  no  doubt,  by  the  bye,  by  the  way,  then, 
too,  of  course,  in  fine,  namely,  above  all,  therefore. 

Direction.—  Write  short  sentences  in  which  these  words  shall  modify 
some  particular  word  or  phrase  so  closely  as  not  to  be  set  off  by  the 
comma : — 

Indeed,  surely,  too,  then,  now,  further,  why,  again,  still. 


LESiOfI  4§. 


SENTENCES  CLASSIFIED  WITH    RESPECT  TO 
MEANING. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  the  previous  Lessons  we  have  considered 
the  sentence  with  respect  to  the  words  and  phrases  composing  it.  Let 
us  now  look  at  it  as  a  whole. 

The  mountains  lift  up  their  heads.  This  sentence  simply  aflBrms  or 
declares  a  fact,  and  is  called  a  Declarative  Sentence. 

Do  the  mountains  lift  up  their  heads  ?  This  sentence  asks  a  ques- 
tion, and  is  called  an  Interrogative  Sentence. 


Sentences  Classified  with  Respect  to  Meaning,      89 

lAft  up  your  heads.  This  sentence  expresses  a  command,  and  is 
called  an  Imperative  Sentence.  Such  expressions  as  You  must  go, 
You  shall  go  are  equivalent  to  imperative  sentences,  though  they  have 
not  the  imperative  form. 

now  the  mountains  lift  up  their  heads  1  In  this  sentence  the  thought 
is  expressed  with  strong  emotion.  It  is  called  an  Exclamatory  Sen- 
tence. How  and  what  usually  introduce  such  sentences;  but  a 
declarative,  an  interrogative,  or  an  imperative  sentence  may  become 
exclamatory  when  the  speaker  uses  it  mainly  to  give  vent  to  his 
feelings ;  as.  It  is  impossible  1  How  can  I  endure  it !  Talk  of  hypoc- 
risy after  this  I 


DEFINITION.— A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  affirms 
or  denies. 

DEFINITION.— An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  tliat  ex- 
presses a  question. 

DEFINITION.— An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  that  expresses 
a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

DEFINITION.— An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  that  ex- 
presses sudden  thought  or  strong  feeling. 

INTERROGATION  POINT— RULE.— Every  direct  interrogative 
sentence  should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point. 


Analysis  and  Parsing. 

Direction. — Before  analyzing  thsse  sentences  classify  thsm,  and  jus- 
tify the  terminal  marks  of  punctuation  :— 
A  1.  There  are  no  accidents  in  the  providence  of  God. 

2.  Why  does  the  very  murderer,  his  victim  sleeping  before  him,  and 
bis  glaring  eye  taking  the  measure  of  the  blow,  strike  wide  of  the  mor- 
tal part  ? 

3.  Suffer  not  yourselves  to  be  betrayed  with  a  kiss. 

(The  subject  is  you  understood.) 


90  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

4.  How  wonderful  is  the  advent  of  spring  I 

5.  Oh  1  a  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green  1 

6.  Six  days  shalt  thou  labor  and  do  all  thy  work. 

7.  Alexander  the  Great  died  at  Babylon  in  the  thirty-third  year  of 
his  age. 

8.  How  sickness  enlarges  the  dimensions  of  a  man's  self  to  himself  I 

9.  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 

10.  Lend  me  your  ears. 

11.  What  brilliant  rings  the  planet  Saturn  has  1 

12.  What  power  shall  blanch  the  sullied  snow  of  character  ? 

13.  The  laws  of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of  God. 

14.  How  beautiful  was  the  snow,  falling  all  day  long,  all  night  long, 
on  the  roofs  of  the  living,  on  the  graves  of  the  dead  ! 

15.  Who,  in  the  darkest  days  of  our  Revolution,  carried  your  flag 
into  the  very  chops  of  the  British  Channel,  bearded  the  lion  in  his  den, 
and  woke  the  echoes  of  old  Albion's  hills  by  the  thunders  of  his  cannon 
and  the  shouts  of  his  triumph  ? 


LESS0I!  4r. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES   IN    REVIEW. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  Poetry  is  only  the  eloquence  and  enthusiasm  of  religion. —  Words- 
worth. 

Explanation. — Only^  usually  an  adverb,  here  modifies  eloquence  and 
enthusiasm. 

2.  Refusing  to  bare  his  head  to  any  earthly  potentate,  Richelieu 
would  permit  no  eminent  author  to  stand  bareheaded  in  his  presence. — 
Stephen. 

3.  The  Queen  of  England  is  simply  a  piece  of  historic  heraldry;  a 
flag,  floating  grandly  over  a  Liberal  ministry  yesterday,  over  a  Tory 
ministry  to-day. — Conway. 

4.  The  vulgar  intellectual  palate  hankers  after  the  titillation  of  foam- 
ing phrase. — Lowell. 


Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Review.  91 

5.  Two  mighty  vortices,  Pericles  and  Alexander  the  Great,  drew 
into  strong  eddies  about  themselves  all  the  glory  and  the  pomp  of 
Greek  literature,  Greek  eloquence,  Greek  wisdom,  Greek  art.— Z)e 
Q,uincey. 

6.  Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense  lie  in  three  words — 
health,  peace,  and  competence. — Pope. 

7.  Extreme  admiration  puts  out  the  critic's  eye. — Tyler. 

8.  The  setting  of  a  great  hope  is  like  the  setting  of  the  sun. — 
Longfellow. 

9.  Things  mean,  the  Thistle,  the  Leek,  the  Broom  of  the  Plantage- 
nets,  become  noble  by  association. — F.  W.  Robertson. 

10.  Prayer  is  the  key  of  the  morning  and  the  bolt  of  the  night. — 
Beecher. 

11.  In  that  calm  Syrian  afternoon,  memory,  a  pensive  Ruth,  went 
gleaning  the  silent  fields  of  childhood,  and  found  the  scattered  grain 
still  golden,  and  the  morning  sunlight  fresh  and  fair. — Curtis, 


LESS0W  48, 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES   IN    REVIEW. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  By  means  of  steam  man  realizes  the  fable  of  bolus's  bag,  and 
carries  the  two-and-thirty  winds  in  the  boiler  of  his  boat. — Emerson. 

2.  The  Angel  of  Life  winds  our  brains  up  once  for  all,  then  closes 
the  case,  and  gives  the  key  into  the  hands  of  the  Angel  of  Resurrection. 
— Holmes. 

3.  I  called  the  New  World  into  existence  to  redress  the  balance  of 
the  Old. — Canning. 

4.  The  prominent  nose  of  the  New  Englander  is  evidence  of  the  con- 
stant linguistic  exercise  of  that  organ. — Warner. 

5.  Every  Latin  word  has  its  function  as  noun  or  verb  or  adverb 
ticketed  upon  it. — Earle. 

6.  The  Alps,  piled  in  cold  and  still  sublimity,  are  an  image  of  des- 
potism.— Phillips. 


92  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

7.  I  want  my  husband  to  be  submissive  without  looking  so. — Gail 
Hamilton. 

8.  I  love  to  lose  myself  in  other  men's  minds. — Lamb. 

9.  Cheerfulness  banishes  all  anxious  care  and  discontent,  soothes 
and  composes  the  passions,  and  keeps  the  soul  in  a  perpetual  calm. — 
Addison. 

10.  To  discover  the  true  nature  of  comets  has  hitherto  proved  beyond 
the  power  of  science. — Brown's  Oram. 

Explanation. — Beyond  the  power  of  science=impossihle,  and  so  is  an 
attribute  complement.  The  preposition  heyond  shows  the  relation,  in 
sense,  of  power  to  the  subject  phrase. 

'  11.  Authors  must  not,  like  Chinese  soldiers,  expect  to  win  victories 
by  turning  somersets  in  the  air. — Longfellow. 


.ESSOli  4©. 


REVIEW   OF    PUNCTUATION. 
Direction.— 6^/i?e  the  reason,  as  far  as  you  have  been  taught^  for  the 
marks  of  punctuation  v>sed  in  Lessons  44,  46,  47,  and  48. 


I.ESS0M  i@. 

REVIEW. 
To  the  Teacher.— ^ee  sngfrestions,  Lesson  16. 
Direction. —^e^^w/rom  Lesson  87  to  Lesson  46  inclusive  : — 
Give,  in  some  such  way  as  we  have  outlined  in  preceding  Review 
Lessons,  the  substancel  of  the  "  Introductory  Hints  ;  "  memorize  and 
illustrate  definitions  and  rules  ;   illustrate  the  different  uses  of  the 
participle  and  the  infinitive,    and  the  Caution  regarding  the  use  of 
the  participle  ;  illustrate  the  different  ways  in  which  words  and  phrases 
may  be  grammatically  independent,  and  the  punctuation  of  these  in- 
dependent elements. 


Arrangement — Natural  Order.  93 

LESSOU    il 

ARRANGEMENT— NATURAL  ORDER. 

To  the  Teacher.— \i^  from  lack  of  time  or  from  the  necesBity  of  conforming  to  a 
presicriberi  course  of  study,  it  ii*  found  desirable  to  abridge  these  Lessons  on  Arrange- 
ment and  Contraction,  the  exercises  to  be  written  may  be  omitted,  the  pupil  may  be  re- 
quired to  name  and  illustrate  the  positions  of  the  different  parts,  in  both  the  Natural 
and  the  Transposed  order,  and  then  to  read  the  examples  given,  making  the  required 
changes  orally. 

The  eight  following  Lessons  may  thus  be  reduced  to  two. 

Let  us  recall  the  Natural  Order  of  words  and  phrases  in 
a  simple  declarative  sentence. 

The  verb  follows  the  subject,  and  the  object  complement 
follows  the  verb. 

Mtcatnple.— Drake  circumnavigated  the  glohe. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  three  sentences  each  mth  am, 
abject  complement. 

An  adjective  or  a  possessive  modifier  precedes  its  noun,  and 
an  explanatory  modifier  follows  it. 

Examples— Man^s  life  is  a  hrief  span.  Moses,  the  lawgiver,  came 
down  from  the  Mount. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  four  sentences,  two  with  pos- 
sessive modifiers  and  two  with  explanatory,  each  sentence  containing  a/n 
adjective. 

The  attribute  complement,  whether  noun  or  adjective, 
follows  the  verb,  the  objective  complement  follows  the  object 
complement,  and  the  so-called  indirect  object  precedes  the 
direct. 

Examples.— ^gYV^  *'*  ^^^  valley  of  the  Nile.  Eastern  life  is  dreamy. 
They  made  Bonaparte  consul.     They  offered  Ccesar  a  crovm. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  four  sentences  illustrating  the 
positions  of  the  noun  and  the  adjective  when  they  perform  these  offices. 

If  adjectives  are  of  unequal  rank,  the  one  most  closely 
modifying  the  noun  stands  nearest  to  it ;  if  of  the  same 


94  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

rank,  they  stand  in  the  order  of  their  length — the  shortest 
first. 

Mxamples.-^Two  honest  young  men  enlisted.  Cassius  has  a  lean  and 
hungry  look.     A  rock,  huge  smd.  precipitous,  stood  in  our  path. 

"Direction.— Oiserving  this  order,  write  three  sentences  illustrating 
the  relative  position  of  adjeetives  before  and  after  the  noun. 

An  adverb  precedes  the  adjective,  adverb,  or  phrase  which 
it  modifies  ;  precedes  or  follows  (more  frequently  follows) 
the  simple  verb  or  the  verb  with  its  complement ;  and  follows 
one  or  more  words  of  the  verb  if  the  verb  is  compound. 

:Exaniples.— The  light  far  in  the  distance  is  so  very  bright.  I  soon 
found  him.     I  hurt  him  badly.     He  had  often  been  there. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  sentences  illustrating  these 
several  positions  of  the  adverb. 

Phrases  follow  the  words  they  modify  ;  if  a  word  has  two 
or  more  phrases,  those  most  closely  modifying  it  stand 
nearest  to  it. 

Excmipies.— Facts  once  established  are  facts  forever.  He  saUed  for 
Liverpool  on  Monday. 

Direction.—  Observing  this  order,  write  sentences  illustrating  the  po- 
rtions of  participle  and  prepositional  phrases. 


ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED  ORDER. 
Introductory  Hints. — The  common  and  natural  order,  spoken  of 
in  the  preceding  Lesson,  is  not  the  only  order  admissible  in  an 
English  sentence  ;  on  the  contrary,  great  freedom  in  the  placing  of 
words  and  phrases  is  sometimes  allowable.  Let  the  relation  of  the  words 
be  kept  obvious  and,  consequently,  the  thought  clear,  and  in  poetry,  in 
impassioned  oratory,  in  excited  speech  of  any  kind,  one  may  deviate 
widely  from  this  order. 


Arrangement — Transposed  Order.  95 

One's  meaning  is  never  distributed  evenly  among  his  words  ;  more  of 
it  lies  in  some  words  than  in  others.  Under  the  influence  of  strong 
feeling,  one  may  use  words  out  of  their  accustomed  place,  and,  by  thus 
attracting  attention  to  them,  give  them  additional  importance  to  the 
reader  or  hearer. 

When  any  word  or  phrase  in  the  predicate  stands  out  of  its  usual 
place,  appearing  either  at  the  front  of  the  sentence  or  at  the  rear,  we 
have  what  we  may  call  the  Transposed  Order.  I  dare  not  venture  to 
go  down  into  the  cabin —  Venture  to  go  down  into  the  cabin  I  dare  not. 
You  shall  die — Die  you  shall.  Their  names  will  forever  live  on  tTie  lips 
of  the  people — Their  names  loill,  on  the  lips  of  the  people,  forever  live. 

When  the  word  or  phrase  moved  to  the  front  carries  the  verb,  or  the 
principal  word  of  it,  before  the  subject,  we  have  the  extreme  example  of 
the  transposed  order  ;  as,  A  yeomam,  had  he.  Strange  is  the  magic  of  a 
turban.  The  whole  of  a  verb  is  not  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  de- 
clarative sentence  except  in  poetry  ;  as.  Flashed  aU  their  sabres  bare. 

To  the  Teacher,— Where,  in  our  directions  in  these  Lessons  on  Arrangement  and 
Contraction,  we  say  change,  transpose,  or  restore,  the  pupils  need  not  write  the  sen- 
tences. They  should  study  them  and  be  able  to  read  them.  Require  them  to  show 
what  the  sentence  has  lost  or  gained  in  the  change. 

Direction. — Change  these  senten^ees  from  the  natural  to  the  transposed 
order  by  moving  words  or  phrases  to  the  front,  and  explain  the  effect: — 

1.  He  could  not  avoid  it.  8.  He  ended  his  tale  here. 

2.  They  were  pretty  lads.  9.  The  moon  shone  bright. 

3.  The  great  Queen  died  in  the    10.  A  frozen  continent  lies  beyond 

year  1603.  the  sea. 

4.  He  would  not  escape.  11.  He  was  a  contentious  man. 

5.  I  must  go.  12.  It  stands  written  so. 

6.  She  seemed  young  and  sad.  13.  Monmouth  had  never  been  ac- 

7.  He  cried,  "My  son,  my  son  I "  cused  of  cowardice. 
Direction. — Change  these  sentences  from  the  transposed  order  to  the 

natural,  and  explain  the  effect : — 

1.  Him    the    Almighty     Power    5.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him 

hurled  headlong.  down. 

2.  Volatile  he  was.  6.  Once  again  we'll  sleep  secure. 

3.  Victories,  indeed,  they  were.  7.  This  double  oflce  the  participle 

4.  Of  noble  race  the  lady  came.  performs. 


96  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

8.  That  gale  I  well  remember.        12.  To    their    will  we    must    suc- 

9.  Churlish  he  often  seemed.  cumb. 

10.  One  strong  thing  I  find  here    13.  Him  they  hanged. 

below.  14.  Freely  ye  have  received. 

11.  Overhead  I  heard  a  murmur. 

Direction. —  Write  fiiae  sentences,  each  mth  one  of  t?ie  following  nouns 
or  adjectives  as  a  complement ;  and  jive,  each  with  one  of  the  adverbs  or 
phrases  as  predicate  modifier ;  then  transpose  the  ten  with  these  same 
words  moved  to  the  front,  and  explain  the  effect : — 

Giant,  character,  happy,  him,  serene,  often,  in  the  market,  long  and 
deeply,  then,  under  foot. 

Direction. — Transpose  these  sentences  by  placing  the  italicized  words 
last,  and  note  the  effect : — 

1.  The  clouds  lowering  upon  our  house  are  buried  in  the  deep  bosom 
of  the  ocean. 

2.  ^neas  did  bear  from  the  flames  of  Troy  upon  his  shoulder  the  old 
Anchises. 

3.  Such  a  heart  beats  in  the  breast  of  my  people. 

4.  The  great  fire  roared  up  the  deep  and  wide  chimney. 

Direction. — Change  these  to  the  natural  order  : — 

1.  No  woman  was  ever  in  this  wild  humor  wooed  and  won. 

2.  Let  a  shroud,  stripped  from  some  privileged  corpse,  be,  for  its 
proper  price,  displayed. 

3.  An  old  clock,  early  one  summer's  morning,  before  the  stirring  of 
the  family,  suddenly  stopped. 

4.  Treasures  of  gold  and  of  silver  are,  in  the  deep  bosom  of  the  earth, 
concealed. 

5.  Ease  and  grace  in  writing  are,  of  all  the  acquisitions  made  in 
school,  the  most  difficult  and  valuable. 

Direction. —  Write  three  sentences,  each  with  the  following  noun  or 
adjective  or  phrase  in  its  natural  place  in  the  predicate,  and  then  trans- 
pose, placing  these  words  wherever  they  can  properly  go : — 

Mountains,  glad,  by  and  by. 


Arrangement — Transposed  Order,  97 

LESSOli  Si. 

ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED  ORDER. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  their  natural  order  hy  moving 
the  obfect  complement  and  the  verb  to  their  usual  places,  and  tell  what  is 
lost  by  the  cliange : — 

1.  Thorns  and  thistles  shall  the  earth  bring  forth. 

2.  "Exactly  so,"  replied  the  pendulum. 

3.  Me  restored  he  to  mine  office. 

4.  A  changed  France  have  we. 

5.  These  evils  hath  sin  wrought. 

Direction. — Transpose  these  sentences  by  moving  the  object  complement 
and  the  verb,  and  tell  what  is  gained  by  the  change  : — 

1.  The  dial-plate  exclaimed,  "  Lazy  wire  I  " 

2.  The  maiden  has  such  charms. 

3.  The  English  character  has  faults  and  plenty  of  them. 

4.  I  will  make  one  effort  more  to  save  you. 

5.  The  king  does  possess  great  power. 

6.  You  have  learned  much  in  this  short  journey. 

Direction. —  Write  six  transposed  sentences  with  these  nouns  as  obfect 
complements,  and  then  restore  them  to  their  neural  order : — 
Pause,  cry,  peace,  horse,  words,  gift. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  their  natural  order  by  moving 
the  attribute  complement  and  verb  to  their  usual  places,  and  tell  what  is 
lost  by  the  change  : — 

1.  A  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green. 

2.  Feet  was  I  to  the  lame. 

3.  A  mighty  man  is  he. 

4.  As  a  mark  of  respect  was  the  present  given, 

5.  A  giant  towered  he  among  men. 

Direction.—  Transpose  tJiese  sentences  by  moving  the  attribute  complex 
ment  and  the  verb,  and  tell  what  is  gained  by  the  change : — 
1.  We  are  merry  brides. 
7 


98  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

2.  Washington  is  styled  the  **  Father  of  his  Country." 

3.  He  was  a  stark  mosstrooping  Scot. 

4.  The  man  seemed  an  incarnate  demon. 

5.  Henry  VIII.  had  become  a  despot. 

Direction. —  Vsing  these  nouns  as  attribute  complements,  write  three 
sentences  in  the  natural  order,  and  then  transpose  them  : — 

Rock,  desert,  fortress. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  their  natural  order  hy  moving 
the  adjective  complement  and  verb  to  their  usual  places : — 

1.  Happy  are  we  to-night,  boys.     7.  Blood-red  became  the  sun. 

2.  Good  and  upright  is  the  Lord.     8.  Doubtful  seemed  the  battle. 

3.  Hotter  grew  the  air.  9.  Wise  are  all  his  ways. 

4.  Pale  looks  your  Grace.  10.  Wide  open  stood  the  doors. 

5.  Dark  rolled  the  waves.  11.  Weary  had  he  grown. 

6.  Louder  waxed  the  applause.  12.  Faithful  proved  he  to  the  last. 

Direction. — Transpose  these  sentences  hy  moving  the  adjective  complex 
ment  and  the  verb  :: — 

1.  My  regrets  were  bitter  and  unavailing, 

2.  The  anger  of  the  righteous  is  weighty. 

3.  The  air  seemed  deep  and  dark. 

4.  She  had  grown  tall  and  queenly. 

5.  The  peacemakers  are  blessed. 

6.  I  came  into  the  world  helpless. 

7.  The  untrodden  snow  lay  bloodless. 

8.  The  fall  of  that  house  was  great. 

9.  The  uproar  became  intolerable. 
10.  The  secretary  stood  alone. 

Direction. —  Write  Jive  transposed  sentences,  each  with  one  of  these 
adjectives  as  attribute  complement,  and  then  restore  them  to  the  natural 
order : — 

Tempestuous,  huge,  glorious,  lively,  fierce. 


Arrangement — Transposed  Order. 


99 


LESSOli  14, 


ARRANGEMENT— TRANSPOSED  ORDER. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  the  natural  order  hy  moving  the 
adverb  and  verb  to  their  usual  places^  and  note  the  loss : — 


8.  Off  went  his  bonnet. 

9.  Well  have  ye  judged. 

10.  On  swept  the  lines. 

11.  There  dozed  the  donkeys. 

12.  Boom !  boom !  went  the  guns. 

13.  Thus  waned  the  afteraoon. 

14.  There  thunders  the  cataract  age 

after  age. 


1.  Then  burst  his  mighty  heart. 

2.  Here  stands  the  man. 

3.  Crack  !  went  the  ropes. 

4.  Down  came  the  masts. 

5.  So  died  the  great  Columbus  of 

the  skies. 
G.  Tictac  !  tictac  !  go  the  wheels 

of  thought. 
7.  Away  went  Gilpin. 

Direction. — Transpose  these  sentenxiea  by  moving  the  adverb  and  the 
verb : — 

1.  I  will  never  desert  Mr.  Micaw- 

ber. 

2.  The  great  event  occurred  soon 

after. 

3.  The  boy  stood  there  with  dizzy 

brain. 

4.  The    Spaniard's    shot    went 

whing!  whingi 

5.  Catiline  shall  no  longer  plot 

her  ruin. 

Direction. — Write  ten  sentences  in  the  transposed  order,  using  tliese 
adverbs : — 

Still,  here,  now,  so,  seldom,  there,  out,  yet,  thus,  never. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  the  natural  order  by  moving 
the  phrase  and  the  verb  to  their  usual  places,  and  note  the  loss  : — 

1.  Behind  her  rode  Lalla  Rookh.     3.  Into  the  valley  of  death  rode  the 

2.  Seven  years  after  the  Restoration  six  hundred. 

appeared  Paradise  Lost.  4.  To  such  straits  is  a  kaiser  driven. 


6.  A  sincere  word  was  never  utterly 

lost. 

7.  It  stands  written  so. 

8.  Venus  was  yet  the  morning  star. 

9.  You  must  speak  thus. 

10.  Lady  Impudence  goes  up  to  the 

maid. 

11.  Thy  proud  waves  shall  be  stayed 

here. 


:oo  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


5.  Upon   such   a  grating    hinge 

opened  the  door  of  his  daily 
life. 

6.  In  purple  was  she  robed. 

7.  Between  them  lay  a  mountain 

ridge. 

8.  Near  the  surface  are  found  the 

implements  of  bronze. 


9.  Through    the    narrow    bazaar 
pressed  the  demure  donkeys. 

10.  In  those  days  came  John   the 

Baptist. 

11.  On  the  17th  of  June,  1775,  was 

fought  the  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill. 
13.  Three  times  were  the  Romans 
driven  back. 


Transpose  these  sentences  hy  moving  the  phrase  and  the 


Direction 

•verb : — 

1.  The  disciples  came  at  the  same    6. 

time. 

2.  The  dreamy  murmur  of  insects    7. 

was  heard  over  our  heads.  8. 

3.  An    ancient    and    stately  hall 

stood  near  the  village.  9. 

4.  His  trusty  sword  lay  by  his  side. 

5.  Pepin  eventually  succeeded  to  10. 


The  house  stands  somewhat  back 
from  the  street. 

Our  sphere  turns  on  its  axis. 

The  bridle  is  red  with  the  sign 
of  despair. 

I  have  served  in  twenty  cam- 
paigns. 

Touch  proper  lies  in  the  finger- 
tips and  in  the  lips. 


Charles  Martel. 

Direction. —  Write  ten  sentences  in  the  natural  order,  using  these  prep- 
ositions to  introduce  phrases,  and  then  transpose  them,  and  compare  the 
two  orders : — 

Beyond,  upon,  toward,  of,  by,  into,  between,  in,  at,  to. 

Direction. —  Write  six  sentences  in  the  transposed  order,  beginning 
them  with  these  words : — 
There  (independent),  nor,  neither. 


LEii©l  ii« 


ARRANGEMENT— INTERROGATIVE 

SENTENCES. 

If  the  interrogative  word  is  subject  or  a  modifier  of  it,  the 
order  is  natural. 


Arrangement — Interrogative  Sentences.  loi 

Examples — Who  came  last  evening  ?    What  star  shines  brightest  ? 

Direction. —  Write  five  interrogative  sentences,  using  the  first  word 
below  a>s  a  subject ;  the  second  as  a  subject  and  then  as  a  modifier  of  the 
subject ;  the  third  as  a  subject  and  then  as  a  modifier  of  the  subject : — 

Who,  which,  what. 

If  the  interrogative  word  is  object  or  attribute  complement 
or  a  modifier  of  either,  the  order  is  transposed. 

Examples —  Whom  did  you  see  ?  What  are  personal  consequences  f 
Which  course  wiU  you  choose  ? 

Direction.—  Write  an  interrogative  sentence  with  the  first  word  below 
as  object  complement,  and  another  with  the  second  word  as  attribute  com- 
plement. Write  four  with  the  third  and  the  fourth  as  complements,  and 
four  with  the  third  and  the  fourth  as  modifiers  of  the  complement : — 

Whom,  who,  which,  what. 

If  the  interrogative  word  is  an  adverb,  the  order  is  trans- 


Exampies.— Why  is  the  forum  crowded  ?  Where  a/re  the  flowers,  the 
fair  young  flowers  ? 

Direction. —  Write  five  interrogative  sentences,  using  these  adverbs : — 
How,  when,  where,  whither,  why. 

If  there  is  no  interrogative  word,  the  subject  stands  after 
the  verb  when  this  is  simple  ;  after  the  first  word  of  it  when 
it  is  compound. 

Examples — Have  you  your  lesson  ?    Has  the  gentleman  finished  ? 

Direction. — Write  six  interrogative  sentences,  using  these  verbs : — 
Is,  has,  can  learn,  might  have  gone,  could  have  been  found,  must 

see. 
Direction. — Change  the  sentences  you  ha/ve  written  in  this  Lesson  into 

declarative  sentences. 


102  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

tESiOH  S§, 

ARRANGEMENT— IMPERATIVE  AND  EX- 
CLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

The  subject  is  usually  omitted  in  the  imperative  sentence  ; 
but,  when  it  is  expressed,  the  sentence  is  in  the  transposed 
order. 

Examples.— Praise  ye  the  Lord.    Qiw  {thou)  me  three  grains  of  com. 

Direction. —  Using  these  verbs,  write  ten  sentences,  in  five  of  which  the 
subject  shall  be  omitted;  and  in  five,  expressed : — 
Remember,  listen,  lend,  love,  live,  choose,  use,  obey,  strive,  devote. 

Although  any  sentence  may  without  change  of  order  be- 
come exclamatory  (Lesson  46),  yet  exclamatory  sentences 
ordinarily  begin  with  how  or  what,  and  are  usually  in  the 
transposed  order. 

Examples.— How  quietly  the  child  sleeps  !  How  excellent  is  thy  loving 
kindness  I    What  visions  have  I  seen  !    What  a  life  his  was  ! 

Direction. —  Write  s^  exclamatory  sentences  with  the  word  how  mod- 
ifying (1)  an  adjective,  (2)  a  verb,  and  (3)  an  adverb— in  three  sentences 
let  the  verb  follow,  and  in  three  precede,  the  subject.  Write  four  sentences 
with  the  word  what  modifying  (1)  an  object  complement  and  (2)  an  at- 
tribute complement — in  two  sentences  det  the  verb  follow,  and  in  two  pre- 
cede, the  subject. 

♦ 

tm%m  s?. 

CONTRACTION    OF    SENTENCES. 

Direction. — Contract  these  sentences  by  omitting  the  repeated  modifiers 
and  prepositions,  and  oil  the  conjunctions  except  the  last : — 

1.  Webster  was  a  great  lawyer,  a  great  statesman,  a  great  debater, 
and  a  great  writer. 

3.  By  their  valor,  by  their  policy,  and  by  their  matrimonial  alliances, 
they  became  powerful. 


Contraction  of  Sentences,  103 

8.  Saml.  Adams's  habits  were  simple  and  frugal  and  unostentatious. 

4.  Flowers  are  so  fragile,  so  delicate,  and  so  ornamental ! 

5.  They  are  truly  prosperous  and  truly  happy. 

6.  The  means  used  were  persuasions  and  petitions  and  remonstrance^ 
and  resolutions  and  defiance. 

7.  Carthage  was  the  mistress  of  oceans,  of  kingdoms,  and  of  nations. 

Direction. — Expand  these  hy  repeating  the  adjecti'oe,  the  adverb,  the 
preposition,  and  the  conjunction  : — 

1.  He  was  a  good  son,  father,  brother,  friend. 

2.  The  tourist  traveled  in  Spain,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Palestine. 

3.  Bayard  was  very  brave,  truthful,  and  chivalrous. 

4.  Honor,  revenge,  shame,  and  contempt  inflamed  his  heart. 

Direction. — Write  eight  sentences,  each  with  one  of  these  words  used 
four  times ;  and  then  contract  them,  as  a^ove,  and  note  the  effect  of  the 
repetition  and  omission  : — 

Poor,  colossal,  how,  thus,  with,  through,  or,  and. 

Direction. — Expand  these  sentences  by  supplying  subjects  : — 

1.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread.  5.  Where     hast     been    these    six 

2.  Why  dost  stare  so  ?  months  ? 

3.  Thank  you,  sir.  6.  Bless  me  I 

4.  Hear  me  for  my  cause.  7.  Save  us. 

Direction. — Expand  these  by  supplying  the  verb  or  some  part  of  it : — 

1.  Nobody  there.  6.  Short,  indeed,  his  career. 

2.  Death  to  the  tyrant.  7.  When  Adam  thus  to  Eve. 

3.  All  aboard  !  8.  I  must  after  him. 

4.  All  hands  to  the  pumps  I  9.  Thou  shalt  back  to  France. 

5.  What  to  me  fame?  10.  Whose  footsteps  these  ? 

Direction. — Expand  these  by  supplying  both  subject  and  verb,  and 
note  the  loss  in  vivacity : — 

1.  Upon  them  with  the  lance.  6.  Off  with  you. 

2.  At  your  service,  sir.  7.  My  kingdom  for  a  horse  I 

3.  Why  so  unkind  ?  8.  Hence,  you  idle  creatures  I 

4.  Forward,  the  light  brigade  I  9.  Coffee  for  two. 

5.  Half-past  nine.  10.  Shine,  sir  ? 


104  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

11.  Back  to  thy  punishment,  false  14.  Once  more  unto  the  breach. 

fugitive.  15.  Away,  away  I 

12.  On  with  the  dance.  16.  Impossible! 

13.  Strange,  strange  I 

Direction. — Contract  these  ly  omitting  the  subject  or  the  verb : — 

1.  Art  thou  gone?  6.  How  great  is  the  mystery  I 

2.  Will  you  take  your  chance?  7.  Canst  thou  wonder  ? 

3.  His  career  was  ably  run.  8.  May  a  prosperous  voyage  be  to 

4.  Are  you  a  captain?  you. 

5.  May  long  life  be  to  the  republic.     9.  Are  you  here? 

Direction. — Contract  these  hy  omitting  both  subject  and  verb,  and 
note  tTie  gain  in  force  and  animation : — 

1.  I  offer  a  world  for  sale.  7.  It  is  true,  sir. 

2.  Now,  then,  go  you  to  breakfast.    8.  We  will  drink  a  health  to  Pre- 

3.  Sit    you    down,    soothless    in-  ciosa. 

suiter.  9.  I    offer    a    penny     for     your 

4.  I  want  a  word  with  you,  wife.  thoughts. 

5.  Those  are  my  sentiments,  ma-   10.  Whither    are    you     going    so 

dam.  early? 

6.  Bring  ye  lights  there. 

Direction. —  Construct  ten  full  sentences,  using,  in  each,  one  of  these 
adverbs  or  phrases  or  nouns,  and  then  contract  them  by  omitting  both 
subject  and  verb  : — 

Why,  hence,  to  arms,  silence,  out,  to  your  tents,  peaches,  room,  for 

the  guns,  water. 

— * — 

LESSOli  IS. 

REVIEW. 

To  the  Teacher,— See  suggestions,  Lesson  16. 

Direction. — Review  from  Lesson^!  to  Lesson  57,  inclusive. 

Illustrate  the  different  positions — Natural  and  Transposed — that  the 
words  and  phrases  of  a  declarative  sentence  may  take;  illustrate  the 
different  positions  of  the  parts  of  an  interrogative,  an  imperative,  and 
an  exclamatory  sentence ;  illustrate  the  different  ways  of  contracting 
sentences. 


Complex  Sentence — Adjective  Clause.  105 

LESSOR  id. 

COMPLEX  SENTENCE— ADJECTIVE  CLAUSE. 

Introductory  Hints. — A  discreet  yovih  makes  friends.  In  Lesson  17 
you  learned  that  you  could  expand  the  adjective  discreet  into  a  phrase, 
and  say,  A  youth  of  discretion  maiies  friends.  You  are  now  to  learn 
that  you  can  expand  it  into  an  expression  that  asserts,  and  say,  A  youth 
tTiat  is  discreet  makes  friends.  This  part  of  the  sentence  and  the  other, 
A  youth  makes  friends,  containing  each  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  we 
call  Clauses. 

The  adjective  clause  that  is  discreet,  performing  the  office  of  a  single 
word,  we  call  a  Dependent  Clause,  and  A  youth  makes  friends,  not 
performing  such  office,  we  call  an  Independent  Clause. 

The  whole  sentence,  composed  of  an  independent  and  a  dependent 
clause,  we  call  a  Complex  Sentence. 


Analysis   and   Parsing. 
1.  They  that  touch  pitch  will  be  defiled. 

TTiey    .     wUl  be  defiled  JSxplanation.— The  relative  Importance  of 

the  two  clauses  is  shown  by  their  position,  by 

\  their  connection,  and  by  the  difference  in  the 

t7iat\    touch      rtitch  shading  of  the  lines.    The  pronoun  that  is  writ- 

H        —     ten  on  the  subject  line  of  the  dependent  clause. 

TTiat  performs  the  oflace  of  a  conjunction  also.  This  oflBce  is  shown  by  the 
dotted  line.  As  modifiers  are  joined  by  slanting  lines  to  the  words  they 
modify,  you  learn  from  this  diagram  that  that  touch  pitch  is  a  modifier  of 
they. 

Oral  Analysis.— This  is  a  complex  sentence,  because  it  consists  of  an 
independent  clause  and  a  dependent  clause.  They  wUl  be  defiled  is 
the  independent  clause,  and  that  touch  pitch  is  the  dependent.  Thai 
touch  pitch  is  a  modifier  of  they,  because  it  limits  its  meaning ;  the  de- 
pendent clause  is  connected  by  its  subject  that  to  they. 


io6  The  Sentence  aitd  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

To  the  Teacher  —Illustrate  the  connecting  force  of  who,  which,  and  (hat  by 
substituting  for  them  the  words  for  which  they  stand,  and  noting  the  loss  of  connec- 
tion. 

3.  The  lever  which  moves  the  world  of  mind  is  the  printing-press. 

3.  Wine  makes  the  face  of  him  who  drinks  it  to  excess  blush  for  his 
habits. 

Explanation. — The  adjective  clause  does  not  always  modify  the 
subject. 

4.  Photography  is  the  art  which  enables  common-place  mediocrity  to 
look  like  genius. 

5.  In  1685,  Louis  XIV.  signed  the  ordinance  that  revoked  the  Edict 
of  Nantes. 

6.  The  thirteen  colonies  were  welded  together  by  the  measures  which 
Samuel  Adams  framed. 

Explanation. — The  pronoun  connecting  an  adjective  clause  is  not 
always  a  subject. 

7.  The  guilt  of  the  slave-trade,  which  sprang  out  of  the  traflBc  with 

Guinea,  rests  with  John  Hawkins. 
I    ^  found  I    '^ace  ^  g^  j  ^^^^^  ^^^  pj^^^  ^^  ^j^.^j^  ^^^  ^^_ 

V    \  f erred. 

you     referred  \  ^'  "^^^  spirit  in  which  we  act  is  the 

'       \  \  highest  matter. 

\  wMeh\  ^^'  ^^  ^^^  *^^  same  book  that  I  re- 

^  ^      ferred  to. 

Explanation. — The  phrase  to  that  modifies  referred.     That  connects 

the  adjective  clause.     When  the  pronoun  tliat  connects  an  adjective 

clause,  the  preposition  never  precedes.     The  diagram  is  similar  to  that 

of  (8). 

11.  She  that  I  spoke  to  was  blind. 

12.  Grouchy  did  not  arrive  at  the  time  that  Napoleon  most  needed 
him. 

Explanation. — A  preposition  is  wanting.     That  =  in  which, 

13.  Attention  is  the  stuff  that  memory  is  made  of. 


Adjective  Clauses — Continued.  107 

14.  It  is  to  you  that  I  speak. 

Explanation. — Here  the  preposition,  which  naturally  would  stand 
last  in  the  sentence,  is  found  before  the  complement  of  the  independent 
clause.  In  analysis  restore  the  preposition  to  its  natural  place — It  is 
you  that  I  speak  to.     That  I  speak  to  modifies  the  subject. 

15.  It  was  from  me  that  he  received  the  information. 

{Me  must  be  changed  to  /  when/rom  is  restored  to  its  natural  position.) 
mountains  16.  Islands  are  the  tops  of  mountains  whose  base 

\  .       is  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 

\    \^  I  Explanation. — The  connecting  pronoun  is  here  a 

^  possessive  modifier  of  base. 

17.  Unhappy  is  the  man  whose  mother  does  not  make  all  mothers  in- 
teresting. 


I.E1 


/0~ 

^  1.  Trillions  of 


ADJECTIVE   CLAUSES— CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
waves  of  ether  enter  the  eye  and  hit  the  retina  in  the 
time  you  take  to  breathe. 

Explanation. — The  connecting  pronoun  is  omitted.     Supply  that. 
'  2.  The  smith  takes  his  name  from  his  smoothing  the  metals  he 
works  on. 

3.  Socrates  was  one  of  the  greatest  sages  the  world  ever  saw. 

4.  Whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth. 

Explanation. — The  adjective  clause  modifies  the  omitted  antecedent 
of  whom.     Supply  him. 

5.  He  did  what  was  right. 

■■{*',  JBxplanation.—lihe  adjective  clause 

modifies  the  omitted  word  thing,   or 
some  word  whose  meaning  is  general  or 
what  \  .  was  ^  rkjht     indefinite.* 

*  Manj'^  grammarians  prefer  to  treat  what  was  right  as  a  noun  clause  (see  Les8<  n 
71),  the  object  of  did.  They  would  treat  in  the  same  way  clauses  introduced  by 
whoever,  whatever,  whichever. 

"  What  was  originally  an  interrogative  and  introduced  substantive  clauses.    Its  upe 


I08  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

6.  What  is  false  in  this  world  below  betrays  itself  in  a  love  of  show. 

7.  The  swan  achieved  what  the  goose  conceived. 

8.  What  men  he  had  were  true. 

Explanation. — Men  is  here  taken  from  its  natural  position  before 
what,  and  placed  after  it,  as  if  the  relative  were  an  adjective.  In  analy- 
sis restore  men  to  its  place— J!fe?i  what  (=  thafj  he  had  were  true. 

9.  Whoever  does  a  good  deed  is  instantly  ennobled. 

Explanation. — The  adjective  clause  modifies  the  omitted  subject 
{man  or  he)  of  the  independent  clause. 

..^.lO.  I  told  him  to  bring  whichever  was  the  lightest, 

11.  Whatever  crushes  individuality  is  despotism. 

12.  A  depot  is  a  place  where  stores  are  deposited. 

depot   .    is   V  nlace  Explanation.— T!\iQ    lin6    repre- 

W      '  V     \  senting  where  is  made  up  of  two 

\^  parts  ;  the  upper  part,  representing 

^  wJiere  as    a  conjunction,   connects 

.  stores  j\are  depoidted  ^^e  adjective  clause  to  place;  and 
the  lower  part,  representing  it  as  an  adverb,  modifies  are  deposi^e^?.  As  where 
performs  these  two  offices,  it  may  be  called  a  conjmictive  adverb.  By  chang- 
ing where  to  the  equivalent  phrase  in  whic/i,  and  using  a  diagram  similar  to 
(8),  Lesson  59,  the  double  nature  of  the  conjunctive  adverb  will  be  seen. 

13.  He  raised  the  maid  from  where  she  knelt. 
(Su^^lj  the  place  hetore  where.) 

14.  Youth  is  the  time  when  the  seeds  of  character  are  sown. 

15.  Shylock  would  give  the  duke  no  reason  why  he  followed  a  losing 
suit  against  Antonio.  >. 

16.  Mark  the  majestic  simplicity  of  those  laws  whereby  the  opera- 
tions of  the  universe  are  conducted. 

as  a  compound  relative  is  an  extension  of  its  nse  as  an  indirect  interrogative  ;  it  is 
confined  to  clauses  which  may  be  parsed  as  substantives,  and  before  which  no  ante- 
cedent is  needed,  or  permitted  to  be  esprcssed.  Its  possessive  whose  has,  however, 
attained  the  full  construction  of  a  relative."— iVcj^.  jF.  A.  March. 


Composition — Adjective  Clause.  109 

LEii§ll  %\. 

COMPOSITION— ADJECTIVE    CLAUSE. 

COMMA— RULE.— The  ^<(/ecfit;e  Clause^  when  not  restrictive, 
is  set  ofiF  by  the  comma. 

Explanation. — I  picked  the  apple  that  was  ripe.  I  picked  the  apple, 
which  was  ripe.  In  the  first  sentence  the  adjective  clause  restricts  or 
limits  apple,  telling  which  one  was  picked  ;  in  the  second  the  adjective 
clause  is  added  merely  to  describe  the  apple  picked,  being  nearly  equiv- 
alent to,  I  picked  the  apple,  and  it  was  ripe.  This  difference  in  mean- 
ing is  shown  by  the  punctuation. 

Caution,— T]iQ  adjective  clause  should  be  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  word  it  modifies. 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors  of  position,  and  insert  the 
comma  ivhen  needed : — 

1.  The  Knights  of  the  Round  Table  flourished  in  the/feign  of  King 
Arthur  who  vied  with  their  chief  in  chivalrous  exploits. 

2.  Solomon  was  the  son  of  David  who  built  the  Temple. 

3.  My  brother  caught  the  fish  on  a  small  hook  baited  with  a  worm 
which  we  had  for  breakfast. 

4.  You  have  no  right  to  decide  who  are  interested. 

Direction. — Construct  Jive  complex  sentences,  each  containing  an  ad- 
jective clause  equivalent  to  one  of  the  following  adjectives : — 

Ambitious,  respectful,  quick-witted,  talkative,  lovable. 

Direction. — Change  the  following  simple  sentences  into  complex  sen' 
tences  by  expanding  the  participle  phrases  into  adjective  clauses  :-^ 

1.  Those  fighting  custom  with  grammar  are  foolish. 

2.  The  Constitution  framed  by  our  fathers  is  the  sheet-anchor  of  our 

liberties.  . 


1 10  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

3.  I  am  thy  father's  spirit,  doomed  for  a  certain  term  to  walk  the 
night. 

4.  Some  people,  having  lived  abroad^  undervalue  the  advantages  of 
their  native  land. 

5.  A  wife  and  children,  threatened  with  widowhood  and  orphan- 
age, have  knelt  at  your  feet  on  the  very  threshold  of  the  Senate 
Chamber. 

/  j)  ^Direction. — Change,  these  simple  sentences  to  complex  sentences  hy  ex- 
^    panding  the  infinitive  phrases  into  adjective  clauses : — 

1.  I  have  many  things  to  tell  you. 

2.  There  were  none  to  deliver. 

3.  He  had  an  ax  to  grind. 

4.  It  was  a  sight  to  gladden  the  heart. 

5.  It  was  a  din  to  fright  a  monster's  ear. 

Direction. — Form  complex  senten^ces  in  which  these  pronouns  and  con- 
junctive adverbs  shall  be  used  to  connect  adjective  clauses  : — 

Who,  which,  that,  what,  whoever,  and  whatever. 
When,  where,  and  why. 

Direction. — Change  that  which  in  the  following  sentences  to 
what,  and  what  to  that  which;  whoever  to  he  who,  and 
whatever  to  anything  or  everything  which;  where  and 
when  to  at,  on,  or  in  which ;  wherein  to  in  which;  and 
whereby  to  by  which  : — 

1.  That  which  is  seen  is  temporal. 

2.  What  God  hath  joined  together  let  not  man  put  asunder. 

3.  Whoever  lives  a  pious  life  blesses  his  race. 

4.  Whatever  we  do  has  an  influence. 

5.  Scholars  have  grown  old  and  blind,  striving  to  put  their  hands  en 
the  very  spot  where  brave  men  died. 

6.  The  year  when  Chaucer  was  born  is  uncertain. 

7.  The  play's  the  thing  wherein  I'll  catch  the  conscience  of  the 
king. 

8.  You  take  my  life  in  taking  the  means  whereby  I  live. 


Complex  Sentence — Adverb  Clause.  iii 

Direction. — Expcmd  these  possessive  and  explanatory  modifiers  into 

adjective  da/uses : — 

1.  A  man's  heart  deviseth  his  way. 

2.  Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense. 

Lie  in  three  words — ?ieal.th,  peaee^  and  competence. 


LESSOM  @a. 


Direction. — Analyze  the  first  nine  sentences  in  the  preceding  Lesson^ 
and  icrite  iUKstrative  sentences  as  here  directed : — 

Give  an  example  of  an  adjective  clause  modifying  a  subject;  one 
modifying  a  complement;  one  modifying  the  principal  word  of  a 
phrase;  one  modifying  some  word  omitted;  one  the  connective  of 
which  is  a  subject;  one  whose  connective  is  a  complement;  one  whose 
connective  is  the  principal  word  of  a  phrase ;  one  whose  connective  is  a 
possessive  modifier ;  one  whose  connective  is  omitted ;  one  whose  con- 
nective is  an  adverb. 


LESSON  @3. 

COMPLEX    SENTENCE— ADVERB    CLAUSE. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  arrived  late.  You  have  learned  that  you 
could  expand  the  adverb  late  into  a  phrase,  and  say,  He  arrived  at 
midnight.  You  are  now  to  learn  that  you  can  expand  it  into  a  clause 
of  Time,  and  say.  He  arrived  when  the  clock  struck  ticelve. 

He  stood  where  lam.  The  adverb  clause,  introduced  by  wliere,  is  a 
clause  of  Place,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  adverb  A^re  or  to  the  phrase  i» 
this  place. 

This  exercise  is  as  profitable  as  it  is  pleasant.  The  adverb  clause,  in- 
troduced hj  as  ...  as,  modifies  profitable,  telling  the  Degree  of  the 
quality  expressed  by  it. 


112  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Analysis   and   Parsing. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  time. 

1.  When  pleasure  calls,  we  listen. 

we         listen  Bxplanation, —  W?ien  modifies  both  listen  and  calls, 

'       'T  denoting  that  the  two  actions  take  place  at  the  sam© 

•^  time.    It  also  connects  pleasure  calls,  as  an  adverb 

y  modifier,  to  listen.     The  offices  of  the  conjunctive 

pleasure  J\  calls     ^^^^^^  ^j^^^  ^^^  -^^  better  understood  by  expand- 

ing  it  into  two  phrases  thus  :  We  listen  at  tJve  time  at  which  pleasure  calls. 

At  the  tirne  modifies  listen,  at  which  modifies  calls,  and  which  connects. 

The  line  representing  wfi£n  is  made  up  of  three  parts  to  picture  these  three 
oflices.  The  part  representing  it  as  a  modifier  of  calls  is,  for  convenience, 
placed  above  its  principal  line  instead  of  below  it. 

2.  "While  Louis  XIV.  reigned,  Europe  was  at  war. 

3.  When  my  father  and  my  mother  forsake  me,  then  the  Lord  will 
take  me  up. 

Lord  I    will  take    i   rne 


1 


\     V^  Explanation..— "Ej  changing  then  into 

\A\  at  the  time,  and  wh£n  into  at  which,  the  of- 

father  '      \^  fi^es  of  these  two  words  will  be  clearly 


\^     !s\   \f(yrsdke  \  me     seen.    For  explanation  of  the  line  repre- 


motTher 


> 


sentingwAeri,  see  Lesson  14  and  (1)  above. 


4.  Cato,  before*  he  durst  give  himself  the  fatal  stroke,  spent  the 
night  in  reading  "  Plato's  Immortality." 

5.  Many  f  a  year  is  in  its  grave  since  I  crossed  this  restless  wave. 
Explanation. — Many  here  modifies  year,  or,  rather,  year  as  modified 

by  a. 

6.  Blucher  arrived  on  the  field  of  Waterloo  just  as  Wellington  was 
meeting  the  last  onslaught  of  Napoleon. 

*  Some  prefer,  in  constructions  like  this,  to  treat  before,  ere,  after,  till,  until,  and 
since  as  prepositions  followed  by  noun  clauses, 
t  See  foot-note  p.  76. 


Complex  Sentence — Adverb  Clause,  113 

Bliix^h^  I   arnved  Explanation.— Just  may  be 

treated  as  a  modifier  of  the  de- 
pendent clause.  A  closer  aual- 
WeUington  \  was  meeting  ,  mslaught  ^^i^'  Ixowever,  would  make  it 
'  1"^  a  modifier  of  as.    Just  as  =  just 

at  the  time  at  which.    Just  here  modifies  at  the  time.    At  the  time  is  represented 
in  the  diagram  by  the  first  element  of  the  as  line. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  place, 

7.  Where  the  snow  falls,  there  is  freedom. 

8.  Pope  skimmed  the  cream  of  good  sense  and  expression  wherever 
he  could  find  it. 

9.  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  degree, 

10.  Washington  was  as  good  as  he  was  great. 

Explanation. — The  adverb  clause  as  lie  was  great  modifies  the  first 
as,  which  is  an  adverb  modifying  good.  The  first  as,  modified  by  the 
adverb  clause,  answers  the  question,  Good  to  what  extent  or  degree  ? 
The  second  as  modifies  great  and  performs  the  oflBce  of  a  conjunction, 
and  is,  therefore,  a  conjunctive  adverb.  Transposing,  and  expanding 
as  .  .  .  as  into  two  phrases,  we  have,  Washington  was  good  in  the 
degree  in  which  he  was  great.     See  diagram  of  (3). 

11.  The  wiser  he  grew,  the  humbler  he  became. 

Explanation.  —  The  words  the  .  .  .  the  are  similar  in  office  to 
as  .  .  .  as — He  became  humbler  in  that  degree  in  which  he  became 

wiser. 

12.  Gold  is  heavier  than  iron. 

Gold  I    is    \    heavier  Explanation. — Heavier  =  heavy    beyond    the 

\  degree,  and  than  =  in  which.     The  sentence  = 

'%  G'oZd  is  h£avy  beyond  the  degree  in  which  iron  is 

\  heavy.    Is  and  heavy  are  omitted.      Frequently 

1   '^    ^^ words  are  omitted  after  than  and  as.     Than 

modifies  heavy  (understood)  and  connects  the  clause  expressing  degree  to 
heavier,  and  is,  therefore,  a  conjunctive  adverb. 
8 


1 14  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

13.  To  be  right  is  better  than  to  be  president. 

Explanation. — To  be  right  is  better  (good  in  a  greater  degree)  than 
to  be  president  (would  be  good). 

14.  It  was  so  cold  that  the  mercury  froze.* 

Explanation. — The  degree  of  the  cold  is  here  shown  by  the  effect  it 
produced.  The  adverb  so,  modified  by  the  adverb  clause  that  the  mer- 
cury froze,  answers  the  question,  Cold  to  what  degree  ?  The  sentence 
=  It  was  cold  to  that  degree  in  which  the  mercury  froze.  Thatj  as  you 
see,  modifies  froze  and  connects  the  clauses ;  it  is,  therefore,  a  conjunc- 
tive adverb. 

15.  It  was  so  cold  as  to  freeze  the  mercury. 

Explanation. — It  was  so  cold  as  to  freeze  the  mercury  would  indicate 
or  require  ;  or.  It  was  as  cold  as  it  would  he  to  freeze  the  mercury.  This 
phrase  may  be  resolved  into  the  clause  that  the  mercury  froze. 

16.  Dying  for  a  principle  is  a  higher  degree  of  virtue  than  scolding 
for  it. 

T     like      it  ^'^'  ^^  called  so  loud  that  all  the  hollow  deep  of 

'    \-\<f  hell  resounded. 

\  V  \^  18.  To  preach  is  easier  than  to  practice. 

I  \  see     I  it        19.  One's  breeding  shows  itself  nowhere  more 
%^^  than  in  his  religion. 

20.  The  oftener  I  see  it,  the  better  I  like  it. 


*  In  this  sentence,  also  in  (15)  and  (17),  the  dependent  clause  is  sometimes  termed 
a  clause  of  Result  or  Consequence.  Clauses  of  Result  express  different  logical  re- 
lations, and  cannot  always  be  classed  under  Degree. 

The  following  are  somewhat  peculiar  : — 

I  had  heard  of  it  before,  no  that  livas  not  surprised.  I  never  go  this  way  thai  I  do 
not  think  of  it.    Who  is  he  that  he  should  be  so  honored  f 


Adverb  Clause — Continued.  115 

LESS@1   84. 

ADVERB   CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 

Introductory  Hints.— ^e  li'ced  as  the  fool  lives.  The  adverb  clause, 
introduced  by  as,  is  a  clause  of  Manner,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  adverb 
foolishly  or  to  the  phrase  in  a  foolish  manner. 

The  ground  is  wet,  because  it  has  rained.  The  adverb  clause,  intro- 
duced by  because,  assigns  the  Real  Cause  of  the  ground's  being  wet. 

It  lias  rained,  for  the  ground  is  wet.  The  adverb  clause,  introduced 
by  for,  does  not  assign  the  cause  of  the  raining,  but  the  cause  of  our 
believing  that  it  has  rained;  it  gives  the  Reason  for  the  assertion  or  the 
Zividence  of  what  is  asserted.* 


Analysis  and  Parsing. 
The  adverb  clause  may  express  manner. 

1.  He  died  as  he  lived. 

Explanation. — He  died  in  the  manner  in  which  he  lived.  For  diagram, 
see  (1),  Lesson  63. 

2.  The  upright  msin  speaks  as  he  thinks. 

3.  As  the  upright  man  thinks  so  he  speaks. 

(For  diagram  of  as  .  .  .  so,  see  tvhen  .  .  .  then  (3),  Lesson  63.) 

4.  As  is  the  boy  so  will  be  the  man. 

5.  The  waves  of  conversation  roll  and  shape  our  thoughts  as  the  surf 
rolls  and  shapes  the  pebbles  on  the  shore. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  real  cause, 

*  Reason  or  Evidence  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  Cause.  Cause  pro- 
duces an  effect,  Reason  or  Evidence  produces  knowledge  of  an  effect. 

Reason,  Evidence,  and  Proof  have  been  used  to  name  this  element.  Evidence,  how- 
ever, is  not  Proof  till  conclusive.  In  some  sentences  the  term  Reason  will  best  apply; 
In  others,  Evidence. 

Clauses  of  Reason  or  Evidence  are  sometimes  treated  as  independent. 


Ii6  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

6,  The  ground  is  wet,  because  it  has  rained. 

(jround  I     is    \  w<t 


^ 


\^  Explanation.— Becatise,  being  a  mere  con- 


juiictioD,  stands  on  a  line  wholly  dotted. 


it  ^\has  rained 


7.  Slang  is  always  vulgar,  as  it  is  an  affected  way  of  talking. 

8.  We  keep  the  pores  of  the  skin  open,  for  through  them  the  blood 
throws  off  its  impurities. 

9.  Since  the  breath  contains  poisonous  carbonic  acid,  wise  people 
ventilate  their  sleeping  rooms. 

10.  Sea-bathing  is  the  most  healthful  kind  of  washing,  as  it  combines 
fresh  air  and  vigorous  exercise  with  its  other  benefits. 

11.  Wheat  is  the  most  valuable  of  grains,  because  bread  is  made  from 
its  flour. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  reason  or  evidence. 

12.  God  was  angry  with  the  children  of  Israel,  for  he  overthrew  them 
in  the  wilderness. 

13.  Tobacco  and  the  potato  are  American  products,  since  Raleigh 
found  them  here. 

14.  It  rained  last  night,  because  the  ground  is  wet  this  morning. 

15.  We  Americans  must  all  be  cuckoos,  for  we  build  our  homes  in  the 
nests  of  other  birds. 


LESSOl  SS. 

ADVERB  CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 

Introductory  Hints. — If  it  rains,  the  ground  will  he  wet.  The  ad- 
verb clause,  introduced  by  if,  assigns  what,  if  it  occurs,  will  he  the  cause 
of  the  ground's  being  wet,  but,  as  here  expressed,  is  only  a  Condition 
ready  to  become  a  cause. 

He  takes  exercise  that  he  may  get  well.  The  adverb  clause,  introduced 
by  that,  assigns  the  cause  or  motive,  or,  better,  the  Purpose,  of  his  ex- 


Adverb  Clause — Continued.  WJ 

The  ground  is  dry,  although  it  has  rained.  The  adverb  clause,  in- 
troduced by  although,  expresses  a  Concession.  It  is  conceded  that  a 
cause  for  the  ground's  not  being  dry  exists  ;  but,  in  spite  of  this  oppos- 
ing causBj  it  is  asserted  that  the  ground  is  dry. 

All  these  dependent  clauses  of  reaZ  cav^e,  reason,  condition,  purpose, 
and  concession  come,  as  you  see,  under  the  general  head  of  Cause,  al- 
though only  the  first  assigns  the  cause  proper. 


j  Analysis  and  Parsing. 

^    The  adverb  clause  may  express  condition. 

1.  If  the  air  is  quickly  compressed,  enough  heat  is  evolved  to  produce 
combustion. 

2.  Unless  your  thought  packs  easily  and  neatly  in  verse,  always  use 
prose. 

{Unless  =  if  not.) 

3.  If  ever  you  saw  a  crow  with  a  king-bird  after  him,  you  have  an 
image  of  a  dull  speaker  and  a  lively  listener. 

4.  Were  it  not  for  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  harbors 
and  the  rivers  of  Britain  would  be  blocked  up  with  ice  for  a  great  part 
of  the  year. 

Explanation.— The  relative  position  of  the  subject  and  the  verb 
renders  the  */  unnecessary.    This  omission  of  if  is  a  common  idiom. 

5.  Should  the  calls  of  hunger  be  neglected,  the  fat  of  the  body  is 
thrown  into  the  grate  to  keep  the  furnace  in  play.  . 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  purpose.   ^ 

6.  Language  was  given  us  that  we  might  say  pleasant  things  to  each 
other. 

Explanation. — That,  introducing  a  clause  of  purpose,  is  a  mere  con- 
Junction. 


Ii8  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

7.  Spiders  have  eyes  all  over  their  heads  in  order  that  they  may  see 
in  many  directions  at  one  time. 
Explanation. — The  phrases  in  order  that,  so  that  =  that, 

8.  The  ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  was  dug  so  thai; 
European  vessels  need  not  sail  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  reach 
the  Orient. 

9.  The  air  draws  up  vapors  from  the  sea  and  the  land,  and  retains 
them  dissolved  in  itself  or  suspended  in  cisterns  of  clouds,  that  it  may 
drop  them  as  rain  or  dew  upon  the  thirsty  earth. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  concession. 

10.  Although  the  brain  is  only  one  fortieth  of  the  body,  about  one 
sixth  of  the  blood  is  sent  to  it. 

11.  Though  the  atmosphere  presses  on  us  with  a  load  of  fifteen  pounds 
on  every  square  inch  of  surface,  still  we  do  not  feel  its  weight. 

13.  Though  thou  shouldst  bray  a  fool  in  a  mortar,  yet  will  not  his 
foolishness  depart  from  him. 

13.  If  the  War  of  Roses  did  not  utterly  destroy  English  freedom,  it 
arrested  its  progress  for  a  hundred  years. 

Explanation. — If  here  =  even  if  —  though. 

14.  Though  many  rivers  flow  into  the  Mediterranean,  they  are  not 
sufficient  to  make  up  the  loss  caused  by  evaporation. 


LESSOR  @@. 

COMPOSITION— ADVERB    CLAUSES. 

COMMA— RULE.— An  Adverb  Clause  is  set  off  by  the  comma 
unless  it  closely  follows  and  restricts  the  word  it  modifies. 

Explanation. — I  met  him  in  Paris,  when  I  was  last  abroad.  I  wiU 
not  call  him  villain,  because  it  would  be  unparliamentary.  Paper  was 
invented  in  China,  if  the  Chinese  tell  the  truth.  In  these  sentences  the 
adverb  clauses  are  not  restrictive,  but  are  supplemejitary,  and  are  added 
almost  as  afterthoughts. 


Composition — Adverb  Clauses.  119 

Glass  bends  easily  when  it  is  red-hot.  Leaves  do  not  turn  red  because 
the  frost  colors  them.  It  will  break  if  you  tou^h  it.  Here  the  adverb 
clauses  are  restrictive  ;  each  is  very  closely  related  in  thought  to  the 
independent  clause,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  be  the  essential  part  of 
the  sentence. 

When  the  adverb  clause  precedes,  it  is  set  off. 

Direction. — Tell  why  the  adverb  clauses  are  or  are  not  set  off  in  Les- 
sons 63  and  64. 

Direction. — WritCy  after  these  independent  dauaes,  adverb  clauses  of 
time,  place,  degree,  etc.  (for  connectives,  see  Less.  100),  and 
punctuate  according  to  the  Rule : — 

1.  The  leaves  of  the  water-maple  turn  red — time. 

2.  Our  eyes  cannot  bear  the  light — time. 

3.  Millions  of  soldiers  sleep — place. 

4.  The  Bunker  Hill  Monument  stands— j9Zac«. 

5.  Every  spire  of  grass  was  so  edged  and  tipped  with  dew — degree, 

6.  Vesuvius  threw  its  lava  so  far — degree. 

7.  The  tree  is  inclined — manner. 

8.  The  lion  springs  upon  his  prey — manner. 

9.  123  persons  died  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta— caw«e. 

10.  Dew  does  not  form  in  a  cloudy  night— ca^^e. 

11.  That  thunderbolt  fell  a  mile  away — reason. 

12.  We  dream  in  our  sleep — reason. 

13.  Peter  the  Great  worked  in  Holland  in  disguise— jswrpose. 

14.  We  put  salt  into  butter  and  upon  vaeBi— purpose, 

15.  Iron  bends  and  moulds  easily — condition. 

16.  Apples  would  not  fall  to  the  ground — condition. 

17.  Europe  conquered  Napoleon  at  last — concession. 

18.  Punishment  foUows  every  violation  of  nature's  laws — concession. 


120  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

LESSOU  6F. 

COMPOSITION— ADVERB    CLAUSES. 
Arrangement. 
The  adverb   clause  may  stand  before  the  independent 
clause,  between  the  parts  of  it,  or  after  it. 

Direction. — Thinlc,  if  you  can,  of  anofher  adverb  clause  for  each  in- 
dependent clause  in  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  hy  means  of  a  caret  (  a  ) 
indicate  where  it  may  properly  stand  in  the  senterice.  Note  its  force  in 
its  several  positions,  and  attend  to  the  punctuation.  JSome  of  these  ad- 
verb clauses  can  stand  only  at  the  end. 


LESSOn  §1. 

COMPOSITION— ADVERB    CLAUSES. 

An  adverb  clause  may  be  contracted  into  a  participle  or  a 
participle  phrase. 

Example —  When  he  saw  me,  he  stopped  =  Seeing  me,  he  stopped. 
Direction. — Contract  these  complex  sentences  to  simple  ones : — 

1.  Coral  insects,  when  they  die,  form  vast  islands  with  their  bodies. 

2.  The  water  will  freeze,  for  it  has  cooled  to  32°. 

3.  Truth,  though  she  may  be  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 

4.  Error,  if  he  is  wounded,  writhes  with  pain,  and  dies  among  his 
worshipers. 

5.  Black  clothes  are  too  warm  in  summer,  because  they  absorb  heat. 

An  adverb  clause  may  be  contracted  to  an  absolute  phrase. 

Example.—  When  night  came  on,  we  gave  up  the  chase  =  Night  com- 
ing on,  we  gave  up  the  chase. 


Composition — Adverb  Clauses,  12 1 

Direction. — Contract  these  complex  sentences  to  simple  ones  : — 

1.  When  oxygen  and  carbon  unite  in  the  minute  blood-vessels,  heat 
is  produced. 

2.  It  will  rain  to-morrow,  for  "  Probabilities  "  predicts  it. 

3.  Washington  retreated  from  Long  Island,  because  his  army  was 
outnumbered. 

4.  If  Chaucer  is  called  the  father  of  our  later  English  poetry, 
Wycliffe  should  be  called  the  father  of  our  later  English  prose. 

An  adverb  clause  may  be  contracted  to  a  prepositional 
phrase  having  for  its  principal  word  (1)  a  participle,  (2)  an 
infinitive,  or  (3)  a  noun. 

Direction. — Contract  each  of  these  adverb  clauses  to  a  prepositional 
phrase  having  a  participle  for  its  principal  word : — 

Model — They  will  call  before  they  leave  the  city  =  They  wiU  call 
before  leaving  the  city. 

1.  The  GuK  Stream  reaches  Newfoundland  before  it  crosses  the 
Atlantic. 

2.  If  we  use  household  words,  we  shall  be  better  understood. 

3.  He  grew  rich,  because  he  attended  to  his  business. 

4.  Though  they  persecuted  the  Christians,  they  did  not  exterminate 
them. 

Direction. — Contract  each  of  these  adverb  clauses  to  an  infinitive 
phrase : — 

Model — She  stoops  that  she  may  conquer  =  She  stoops  to  conquer. 

1.  The  pine  tree  is  so  tall  that  it  overlooks  all  its  neighbors. 

2.  Philip  I.  built  the  Armada  that  he  might  conquer  England. 

3.  He  is  foolish,  because  he  leaves  school  so  early  in  life. 

4.  What  would  I  give,  if  I  could  see  you  happy  ! 

5.  We  are  pained  when  we  hear  God's  name  used  irreverently. 

Direction. — Contract  each  of  these  adverb  clauses  to  a  prepositional 
phrase  having  a  noun  for  its  principal  word  : — 

Model.— Ee  fought  that  he  might  obtain  glory  =  He  fought  for  glory, 
1.  Luther  died  where  Le  was  born. 


122  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

2.  A  fish  breathes,  though  it  has  no  lungs, 

3.  The  general  marched  as  he  was  ordered. 

4.  Criminals  are  punished  that  society  may  be  safe. 

5.  If  you  are  free  from  vices,  you  may  expect  a  happy  old  age. 

An  adverb  clause  may  be  contracted  by  simply  omitting 
such  words  as  may  easily  be  supplied. 

Example, —  When  you  are  right,  go  ahead  =  WJien  rights  go  ahead. 

Direction. — Contract  these  adverb  clauses  : — 

1.  Chevalier  Bayard  was  killed  while  he  was  fighting  for  Francis  I. 

2.  Error  must  yield,  however  strongly  it  may  be  defended. 

Explanation. — However  modifies  strongly,  and  connects  a  concessive 
clause. 

3.  Much  wealth  is  corpulence,  if  it  is  not  disease. 

4.  No  other  English  author  has  uttered  so  many  pithy  sayings  as 
Shakespeare  has  uttered. 

(Frequently,  clauses  introduced  by  as  and  than  are  contracted.) 

5.  The  sun  is  many  times  larger  than  the  earth  is  large. 
(Sentences  like  this  never  appear  in  the  full  form.) 

6.  This  is  a  prose  era  rather  than  it  is  a  poetic  era. 

An  adverb  clause  may  sometimes  be  changed  to  an  adjec- 
tive clause  or  phrase. 

Example. — This  man  is  to  be  pitied,  because  he  has  no  friends  =  This 
man,  who  has  no  friends,  is  to  be  pitied  =  This  man,  having  no  friends, 
is  to  be  pitied  =  This  man,  uithout  friends,  is  to  be  pitied. 

Direction. — Change  each  of  the  following  adverb  clauses  first  to  an 
adjective  clause  and  then  to  an  adjective  phrase  : — 

1.  A  man  is  to  be  pitied  if  he  does  not  care  for  music. 

2.  When  a  man  lacks  health,  wealth,  and  friends,  he  lacks  three 
good  things. 


The  Complex  Sentence — Nou7i  Clause.  123 


L£§i©li    §i. 

ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Tell  the  kind  of  adverb  clause  in  each  of  the  sentences  in 
Lesson  68,  and  note  the  different  positions  in  which  these  clauses  stand. 

Select  two  sentences  containing  time  clauses ;  one,  a  place  clause ; 
two,  degree;  one,  manner;  two,  real  cause;  two,  reason; 
two,  purpose ;  two,  condition ;  and  two,  concession,  and 
analyze  them. 


REVIEW. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  illustrating  the  different  kinds  of  ad- 
verb clauses  named  in  Lessons  63,  64,  65,  and  explain  fully  the  office  of 
each.  For  connectives,  see  Lesson  100.  Tell  why  the  adverb  clauses  in 
Lesson  68  are  or  are  not  set  off  by  the  comma.  Compose  sentences  illus- 
trating the  different  ways  of  contracting  adverb  clauses. 


iESSOfi  7L 

THE   COMPLEX   SENTENCE— NOUN    CLAUSE. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  Lessons  40  and  41  you  learned  that  an  in- 
finitive phrase  may  perform  many  of  the  offices  of  a  noun.  You  are 
now  to  learn  that  a  clause  may  do  the  same. 

Obedience  is  better  than  sacrifice  =  To  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice  = 
That  men  should  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice.  The  dependent  clause 
that  men  should  obey  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  the  Subject  of  is. 

Many  people  believe  that  the  beech  tree  is  never  struck  by  lightning. 
The  dependent  clause,  introduced  by  that,  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and 
is  the  Object  Complement  of  believe. 


124  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

The  fact  that  mould,  mildew,  and  yeast  are  plants  is  wonderful.  The 
clause  introduced  by  that  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  Explanatory 
of  fact. 

A  peculiarity  of  English  is,  that  it  has  so  many  borrowed  words.  The 
clause  introduced  by  that  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  an  Attribute 
Complement  relating  to  peculiarity. 

Your  future  depends  very  mu^h  on  who  your  companions  are.  The 
clause  who  your  companions  are  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  the 
Principal  Term  of  a  Phrase  introduced  by  the  preposition  on» 


Analysis    and   Parsing. 
The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  subject, 
1.  That  the  earth  is  round  has  been  proved. 


That 


Explanation.— Th^  clause  that  tJie  earth 


earth  ,   is  \  s^round  round  is  used  like  a  noun  as  the  subject  of 

"^      I  has  been  proved.     The  conjunction  that^  sim- 

^      1  ply  introduces  the  noun  clause. 

— ^  ^1  pr  ve —      ipjjjg  .g  ^  peculiar  kind   of  complex  sen- 

tence. Strictly  speaking,  there  is  here  no  principal  clause,  for  the  vj/iole 
serdence  cannot  be  called  a  clause,  i.  e.,  apart  of  a  se7itence.  We  may  say  that 
it  is  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  whole  sentence  takes  the  place  of  a 
principal  clause. 

2.  That  the  same  word  is  used  for  the  soul  of  man  and  for  a  glass  of 
gin  is  singular. 

3.  *'  What  have  I  done  ?"  is  asked  by  the  knave  and  the  thief. 

4.  Who  was  the  discoverer  of  America  is  not  yet  fully  determined  by 
historians. 

Explanation. — The  subject  clause  is  here  an  indirect  question.  See 
Lesson  74. 

*  "  That  was  originally  the  neuter  demonstrative  pronoun,  used  to  point  to  the  fact 
stated  in  an  independent  sentence  ;  as,  It  was  good  ;  he  saw  that.  By  an  inversion 
of  the  order  this  became,  He  saw  that  (namely)  it  was  good,  and  so  passed  into  the  form 
He  saw  that  it  was  good,  where  that  has  been  transferred  to  the  accessory  clause,  and 
has  become  a  mere  sign  of  grammatical  subordination."— 6'.  P.  Mason. 


Noun  Clause — Continued.  125 

5.  When  letters  were  first  used  is  not  certainly  known. 

6.  **  Where  is  Abel,  thy  brother  ?"  smote  the  ears  of  the  guilty 
Cain. 

7.  When  to  quit  business  and  enjoy  their  wealth  is  a  problem  never 
solved  by  some. 

Explanation. — When  to  quit  business  and  enjoy  their  wealth  is  an 
indirect  question.  A  question,  fully  stated,  requires  a  subject  and  a 
predicate.  When  to  quit  business  —  When  they  are  to  quit  busi7iess,  or 
When  they  ought  to  quit  business.  Such  constructions  may  be  expanded 
into  clauses,  or  they  may  be  treated  as  phrases  equivalent  to  clauses. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  object  complement. 

8.  Galileo  taught  that  the  earth  moves. 

that  . 

,,   !  Explanation — Here  the  clause  introduced 

earth ,  moves 


\^  I  [ by  ifiat  is  used  like  a  noun  as  the  object  com- 


Galileo  ^taught 


I 


plement  of  taught. 


9.  The  Esquimau  feels  intuitively  that  bear's  grease  and  blubber 
are  the  dishes  for  his  table. 

10.  The  world  will  not  anxiously  inquire  who  you  are. 

11.  It  will  ask  of  you,  **  What  can  you  do  ?  " 

12.  The  peacock  struts  about,  saying,  *'  What  a  fine  tail  T  have  ! " 

13.  He  does  not  know  which  to  choose. 
(See  explanation  of  (7),  above.) 

14.  No  one  can  tell  how  or  when  or  where  he  will  die. 

15.  Philosophers  are  still  debating  whether  the  will  has  any  control 
over  the  current  of  thought  in  our  dreams. 


LESiOH    72. 

NOUN    CLAUSE—CONTINUED. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 
The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  attribute  complement. 


126  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

1.  A  peculiarity  of   English  is,  that   it  has   so  many  borrowed 
words. 

2.  Tweed's  defiant  question  was,  "  What  are  you  going  to  do  about 
it?" 

3.  The  question  ever  asked  and  never  answered  is,"  Where  and  how 
am  I  to  exist  in  the  Hereafter?" 

4.  Hamlet's  exclamation  was,  "  What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  !  " 

5.  The  myth  concerning  Achilles  is,  that  he  was  invulnerable  in 
eyery  part  except  the  heel. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  explanatory  modifier, 

6.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  earth  is  round. 


earth  .  is 


^round  Explanation. — The  grammatical   subject 

it  has  no  meaning  till  explained  by  the  noun 

/  I    V  clause. 

It  (x\)  .  has  "been  proved 

7.  It  is  believed  that  sleep  is  caused  by  a  diminution  in  the  supply 
of  blood  to  the  brain. 

8.  The  fact  that  mould,  mildew,  and  yeast  are  plants  is  wonderful. 

9.  Napoleon  turned  his  Simplon  road  aside  in  order  that  he  might 
save  a  tree  mentioned  by  Caesar. 

Explanation. — Unless  in  order  that  is  taken  as  a  conjunction  con- 
necting an  adverb  clause  of  purpose  (see  (7),  Lesson  65),  the  clause  in- 
troduced by  that  is  a  noun  clause  explanatory  of  order,* 

10.  Shakespeare's  metaphor,  "  Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,"  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  literature. 

11.  The  advice  that  St.  Ambrose  gave  St.  Augustine  in  regard  to 
conformity  to  local  custom  was,  in  substance,  this  :  *' When  in  Rome, 
do  as  the  Romans  do." 

13.  This  we  know,  that  our  future  depends  on  our  present. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  principal  term  of  a 
prepositional  phrase  or  of  an  absolute  phrase, 

*  A  similar  explanation  may  be  made  of  on  condition  that,  in  case  that,  introducing 
adverb  clauses  expressing  condition. 


Composition — Noun  Clause.  127 

13.  Have  birds  any  sense  of  why  they  sing  ? 

hirda  ■  Ham 

*  ^^     ^  Explanation.— Why  they  sing  is 

an  indirect  question,  here  used  as 
the  principal  term  of  a  prepositional 
phrase. 

14.  There  has  been  some  dispute  about  who  wrote  **  Shakespeare's 
Plays." 

15.  We  are  not  certain  that  an  open  sea  surrounds  the  Pole. 

Explanation.— By  supplying  of  before  that,  the  noun  clause  may  be 
treated  as  the  principal  term  of  a  prepositional  phrase  modifying  the 
adjective  certain.  By  supplying  of  the  fact,  the  noun  clause  will  become 
explanatory, 

16.  We  are  all  anxious  that  the  future  shall  bring  us  success  and 
triumph. 

17.  The  Sandwich  Islander  is  confident  that  the  strength  and  valor 
of  his  slain  enemy  pass  into  himself. 

18.  That  the  earth  is  round  being  proved,  we  can  easily  account  for 
these  phenomena. 

^PJ^^^  Explanation,  —  The     noun 

earth  .  uJTround             we^cancwcmmt   ^^^^^^  '^  ^^'^  ^'"^  ^«^"™«^^  «^^ 
+7 —  1 ject  of  "  being  proved,"  forming 


with  this  participle  an  absolute 
<V  proved  phrase.      See  Lesson   44.      The 

diagram  of  the  participle  is  made  to  touch  both  elements  of  the  clause 
Une. 


LESSOU  73. 

COMPOSITION-NOUN  CLAUSE. 

COMMA— RULE.— The  noun  clause  used  as  attribute  complement 
is  generally  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Remark. — Present  usage  seems  to  favor  the  omission  of  the  comma 
with  the  clause  used  as  subject  or  as  object  complement,  except  where 
it  would  contribute  to  clearness  of  construction. 


128  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  punctuation  of  the  explanatory  clause  is  like  that  of  other  ex- 
planatory modiliers.  See  Lesson  34.  But  the  real  subject  made  ex- 
planatory of  it  is  seldom  set  off.  See  next  Lesson  for  the  punctuation 
of  noun  clauses  that  are  questions  or  quotations. 

Direction. — Give  the  reasons  for  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the  comma 
with  the  noun  clauses  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

By  using  it  as  a  substitute  for  the  subject  clause,  this 
clause  may  be  placed  last. 

Example.— That  the  story  of  William  Tell  is  a  myth  is  nowbelieved= 
It  is  now  believed  that  the  story  of  William  Tell  is  a  myth. 

Direction. — By  the  aid  of  the  expletive  i  t,  transpose  Jive  subject 
clauses  in  Lesson  71. 

Often  the  clause  used  as  object  complement  may  be  placed 
first. 

Direction. — Transpose  such  of  the  clauses  used  as  object  comple- 
ments, in  the  preceding  Lessons,  as  admit  transposition.  Punctuate 
them  if  they  need  it. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  made  prominent  by  separating  it, 
and  inserting  the  independent  clause  between  its  parts. 

Example.— The  story  of  William  Tell,  it  is  now  believed,  is  a  myth. 
(Notice  that  the  principal  clause,  used  parenthetically,  is  set  off  by 
the  comma.) 

Direction. —  Write  the  follounng  sentences,  using  the  independent 
clauses  parenthetically : — 

1.  We  belieye  that  the  first  printing-press  in  America  was  set  up  in 
Mexico  in  1536. 

2.  I  am  aware  that  refinement  of  mind  and  clearness  of  thinking 
usually  result  from  grammatical  studies. 

3.  It  is  true  that  the  glorious  sun  pours  down  his  golden  flood  as 
cheerily  on  the  poor  man's  cottage  as  on  the  rich  man's  palace. 


Composition — Noun  Clause,  129 

Direction. —  Vary  the  following  sentence  so  as  to  illustrate  the  six 
different  kinds  of  noun  clauses  : — - 

jnodeh—l.  That  stars  are  suns  is  the  belief  of  astronomers. 

2.  Astronomers  believe  thai  stars  are  suns. 

3.  The  belief  of  astronomers  is,  that  stars  are  suns. 

4.  The  belief  that  stars  are  suns  is  held  by  astronomers. 

5.  Astronomers  are  confident  that  stars  are  suns. 

6.  That  stars  are  suns  being  the  belief  of  astronomers,  we 

accept  the  theory. 

1.  Our  conclusion  is,  that  different  forms  of  government  suit  different 
stages  of  civilization. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  contracted  by  changing  the  pred- 
icate to  a  participle,  and  the  subject  to  a  possessive. 

Example.— That  he  was  brave  cannot  be  doubted  =  His  being  brave 
cannot  be  doubted. 

Direction. — Make  the  following  complex  sentences  simple  by  changing 
the  noun  clauses  to  phrases  : — 

1.  That  the  caterpillar  changes  to  a  butterfly  is  a  curious  fact, 

2.  Everybody  admits  that  Cromwell  was  a  great  leader. 

3.  A  man's  chief  objection  to  a  woman  is,  that  she  has  no  respect  for 
the  newspaper. 

4.  The  thought  that  we  are  spinning  around  the  sun  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  miles  a  second  makes  us  dizzy. 

5.  She  was  aware  that  I  appreciated  her  situation. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  contracted  by  making  the  pred- 
icate, when  changed  to  an  infinitive,  the  objective  comple- 
ment, and  the  subject  the  object  complement. 

Direction. — Make  the  following  complex  sentences  simple  by  changing 
the  predicates  of  the  noun  clauses  to  objective  complements,  and  the  sub- 
jects to  object  complements : — 

Model.— "King  Ahasuerus  commanded  that  Haman  should  be  hanged= 
King  Ahasuerus  commanded  Haman  to  be  hanged. 
9 


130  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


1.  I  believe  that  he  is  a  foreigner. 

2.  The  Governor  ordered  that  the  prisoner  should  be  set  free. 

3.  Many  people  believe  that  Webster  was  the  greatest  of  American 
statesmen. 

4.  How  wide  do  you  think  that  the  Atlantic  ocean  is  ? 

5.  They  hold  that  taxation  without  representation  is  unjust. 

Direction. — Expand  into  complex  sentences  such  of  the  sentences  in 
Lesson  41  as  contain  an  objective  complement  and  an  object  complement 
that  together  are  equivalent  to  a  clause, 

A  noun  clause  may  be  contracted  to  an  infinitive  phrase. 

Example.— That  he  should  vote  is  the  duty  of  every  American  citizen 
=  To  vote  is  the  duty  of  every  American  citizen. 

"DixecMoTx.— Contract  these  noun  clauses  to  infinitive  phrases  : — 

1.  That  we  guard  our  liberty  with  vigilance  is  a  sacred  duty. 

2.  Every  one  desires  that  he  may  live  long  and  happily. 

3.  The  effect  of  looking  upon  the  sun  is,  that  the  eye  is  blinded. 

4.  Caesar  Augustus  issued  a  decree  that  all  the  world  should  bo 
taxed. 

5.  We  are  all  anxious  that  we  may  make  a  good  impression. 

6.  He  does  not  know  whom  he  should  send. 

7.  He  can  not  find  out  how  he  is  to  go  there. 


LISi©ll  T4. 

COMPOSITION— NOUN  CLAUSE— CONTINUED. 

QUOTATION  MARKS— RULE.— Quotation  marks  ("  "}  inclose  a 
copied  word  or  passage. 

Remark. — Single  marks  (* ')  inclose  a  quotation  within  a  quotation. 
If,  within  the  quotation  having  single  marks,  still  another  quotation  is 
made,  the  double  marks  are  again  used  ;  as,  "  The  incorrectness  of  the 


Composition — Noun  Clause — Continued.         131 

dispatches  led  Bismarck  to  declare,  *  It  will  soon  come  to  be  said,  "  He 
lies  like  the  telegraph.'""  This  introduction  of  a  third  quotation 
should  generally  be  avoided,  especially  where  the  three  marks  come  at 
the  end,  as  above. 

When  a  quotation  is  divided  by  a  parenthetical  expression,  each  part 
of  the  quotation  is  inclosed  ;  as,  "I  would  rather  be  right,"  said  Clay, 
"  than  be  president." 

CAPITAL  LETTER— RULE.— The  first  word  of  a  direct  quota- 
tion making  complete  sense  or  of  a  direct  question  introduced  into 
a  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Remark. — A  direct  quotation  is  one  whose  exact  words,  as  well  as 
thought,  are  copied  ;  as,  Nathan  said  to  David,  *'  Thou  art  the  man." 
An  indirect  quotation  is  one  whose  thought,  but  not  whose  exact 
words,  is  copied  ;  as,  Nathan  told  David  that  he  was  the  man. 

The  direct  quotation  is  set  off  by  the  comma,  begins  with  a  capital 
letter,  and  is  inclosed  within  quotation  marks— though  these  may  he 
omitted.  The  indirect  quotation  is  not  generally  set  off  by  the  comma, 
does  not  necessarily  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  is  not  inclosed 
within  quotation  marks. 

A  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence  is  one  in  which  the  ex- 
act words  and  their  order  in  an  interrogative  sentence  (see  Lesson  55) 
are  preserved,  and  which  is  followed  by  an  interrogation  point  ;  as, 
Cain  asked,  ''Am  I  my  brother's  keeper?"  An  indirect  question  is 
one  which  is  referred  to  as  a  question,  but  not  directly  asked  or  quoted 
as  such,  and  which  is  not  followed  by  an  interrogation  point ;  as,  Cain 
asked  whether  he  was  his  brother^s  keeper. 

The  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence  is  set  off  by  the 
comma  (but  no  comma  is  used  after  the  interrogation  point),  begins 
with  a  capital  letter,  and  is  inclosed  within  quotation  marks— though 
these  may  be  omitted.  An  indirect  question  is  not  generally  set  off  by 
a  comma,  does  not  necessarily  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  is  not 
inclosed  within  quotation  marks. 

If  the  direct  quotation,  whether  a  question  or  not,  is  formally  in- 
troduced (see  Lesson  147),  it  is  preceded  by  the  colon  ;  as,  Nathan's 
words  to  David  were  these :  "  Thou  art  the  man."  He  put  the  question 
thus  :  *'  Can  you  do  it  f  " 


132  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  direct  and  indirect  quotations  and  questions 
in  the  sentences  of  Lesson  71,  ttll  why  they  do  or  do  not  begin  with  cap- 
ital letters,  and  justify  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the  comma,  the  inter- 
rogation point,  and  the  quotation  marks. 

Direction. — Bewrite  these  same  sentences,  changing  the  direct  quota- 
tions and  questions  to  indirect,  and  the  indirect  to  direct. 

Direction. —  Write  five  sentences  containing  direct  quotations,  some  of 
which  shall  he  formally  introduced,  and  some  of  which  shall  he  questions 
occurring  at  the  beginning  or  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence.  Change 
these  to  the  indirect  form,  and  look  carefully  to  the  punctuation  and  the 
capitalization. 


ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Analyze  the  sentences  given  for  arrangement  and  con- 
traction in  Lesson  73. 


V  V  LESiOli  Fis 

^'  THE   COMPOUND   SENTENCE. 

Introductory  Hints. — Cromwell  made  one  revolution,  and  Monk 
made  another.  The  two  clauses  are  independent  of  each  other.  The 
second  clause,  added  by  the  conjunction  and  to  the  first,  continues  the 
line  of  thought  begun  by  the  first. 

Man  has  his  will,  hut  woman  has  her  way.  Here  the  conjunction 
connects  independent  clauses  whose  thoughts  stand  in  contrast  to  each 
other — the  sentence  faces,  so  to  speak,  half  way  about  on  hut. 

The  Tudors  were  despotic,  or  history  belies  them.  The  independent 
clauses,  connected  by  or,  present  thoughts  between  which  you  may 
choose,  but  eitJier,  accepted,  excludes  the  other. 


The  Compound  Sentence.  133 

Tlie  ground  is  wet,  tJierefore  it  has  rained.  Here  the  inferred  fact, 
the  raining,  reall?/  stands  to  the  other  fact,  the  wetness  of  the  ground, 
as  cause  to  effect — the  raining  made  the  ground  wet.  It  has  rained, 
hence  the  ground  is  wet.  Here  the  inferred  fact,  the  wetness  of  the 
ground,  realli/  stands  to  the  other  fact,  the  raining,  as  effect  to  cause — 
the  ground  is  made  wet  by  the  raining.  But  this  the  real,  or  logical, 
relation  between  the  facts  in  either  sentence  is  expressed  in  a  sentence 
of  the  compound  form — an  and  may  be  placed  before  therefore  and 
hence.  Unless  the  connecting  word  expresses  the  dependence  of  one  of 
the  clauses,  the  grammarian  regards  them  both  as  independent. 

Temperance  promotes  liealth,  intemperance  destroys  it.  Here  the  in- 
dependent clauses  are  joined  to  each  other  by  their  very  position  in  the 
sentence — connected  without  any  conjunction.  This  kind  of  connection 
is  common. 

Sentences  made  up  of  independent  clauses  we  call  Compound 
Sentences. 


DEFINITION.— A  Clause  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  containing  a 
subject  and  its  predicate. 

DEFINITION.— A  Dependent  Clause  is  one  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive, an  adverb,  or  a  noon. 

DEFINITION.— An  Independent  Clause  is  one  not  dependent 
on  anotlier  clause. 

Sentences  Classified  with  Respect  to  Form. 

DEFINITION.— A  Simple  Sentence  is  one  that  contains  but 
one  subject  and  one  predicate,  eitlier  or  botli  of  wliich  may  be  com- 
pound. 

DEFINITION.— A  Complex  Sentence  is  one  composed  of  an 
independent  clause  and  one  or  more  dependent  clauses. 

DEFINITION.— A  Compound  Sentence  is  one  composed  of 
two  or  more  independent  clauses. 


134  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Analysis    and   Parsing. 

Independent  Clauses  in  the  same  line  of  thought. 

1.  Light  has  spread,  and  bayonets  think. 

LiaM     Tias  snread        JEatplanation.— The  clauses  are  of  equal  rank,  and 
1 1  -SO  the  lines  on  which  they  stand  are  shaded  alike,  and 

the  line  connecting  them  is  not  slanting.    As  one  en- 
tire clause  is  connected  with  the  other,  the  connect- 
^^^'^^     ing  line  is  drawn  between  the  predicates  merely  for 
convenience. 

Oral  Analysis.— This  is  a  compound  sentence,  because  it  is  made  up 
of  independent  clauses. 

2.  Hamilton  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources,  and  abundant 
streams  of  revenue  gushed  forth. 

3.  Some  are  bom  great,  some  achieve  greatness,  and  some  have  great- 
ness thrust  upon  them. 

Independent  Clauses  expressing  thoughts  in  contrast, 

4.  The  man  dies,  but  his  memory  lives. 

5.  Put  not  your  trust  in  money,  but  put  your  money  in  trust. 

6.  Ready  writing  makes  not  good  writing,  but  good  writing  brings 
on  ready  writing. 

Independent  Clauses  expressing  thoughts  in  alterna- 
tion, 

7.  Be  temperate  in  youth,  or  you  will  have  to  be  abstinent  in  old  age. 

8.  Places  near  the  sea  are  not  extremely  cold  in  winter,  nor  are  they 
extremely  warm  in  summer. 

(Here  a  choice  is  denied.) 

9.  Either  Hamlet  was  mad,  or  he  feigned  madness  admirably. 
(See  (16),  Less.  20.) 

Independent  Clauses  expressing  thoughts  one  of  which 
is  an  inference  from  the  other. 

10.  People  in  the  streets  are  carrying  umbrellas,  hence  it  must  be 
raining. 


Composition — Compound  Sentence,  135 


11.  I  have  seen,  therefore  I  believe. 


I .  ~have  seen 


Explanation.— hx  such  constructions  and  may  be 
supplied,  or  the  adverb  may  be  regarded  as  tlie  connect- 
ive.   The  diagram  illustrates  therefore  as  connective. 


Independent  Clauses  joined  in  the  sentence  without  a 
conjunction, 

13.  The  camel  is  the  ship  of  the  ocean  of  sand,  the  reindeer  is  the 
camel  of  the  desert  of  snow. 

13.  Of  thy  unspoken  word  thou  art  master,  thy  spoken  word  is  master 
of  thee. 

14.  The  ship  leaps,  as  it  were,  from  billow  to  billow. 
Explanation. — As  it  were  is  an  independent  clause,  used  paren- 
thetically.    As  simply  introduces  it. 

15.  Religion — who  can  doubt  it  ?— is  the  noblest  of  themes  for  the 
exercise  of  intellect. 

16.  What  grave  (these  are  the  words  of  Wellesley,  speaking  of  the 
two  Pitts)  contains  such  a  father  and  such  a  son  I 


I.ESS0II  77. 

COMPOSITION— COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 

COiffMA  and  SEx^fflCOLOX— RULE.— Independent  clauses,  when 
short  and  closely  connected,  are  separated  by  the  comma;  but, 
when  the  clauses  are  slightly  connected,  or  when  Ihey  are  them- 
selves divided  into  parts  by  the  comma,  the  semicolon  is  used. 

Remark. — A  parenthetical  clause  may  be  set  off  by  the  comma  or  by 
the  dash,  or  it  may  be  inclosed  within  marks  of  parenthesis — the 
marks  of  parenthesis  showing  the  least  degree  of  connection  in  sense. 
See  the  last  three  sentences  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 


\ 


136  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Examples.— \.  We  must  conquer  our  passions,  or  our  passions  will 
conquer  us.  2.  The  prodigal  robs  his  heirs  ;  the  miser  robs  himself. 
3.  There  is  a  fierce  conflict  between  good  and  evil ;  but  good  is  in  the 
ascendant,  and  must  triumph  at  last. 

(The  rule  above  is  another  example.) 

Direction. — Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  give  your  rea- 


1.  The  wind  and  the  rain  are  over  the  clouds  are  divided  in  heaven 
over  the  green  hill  flies  the  inconstant  sun. 

2.  The  epic  poem  recites  the  exploits  of  a  hero  tragedy  represents  a 
■^  jdisastrous  event  comedy  ridicules  the  vices  and  follies  of   mankind 

^JsA  pastoral  poetry  describes  rural  life  and  elegy  displays  the  tender  emo- 
*      A  tions  of  the  heart. 

jO    3.  Wealth  may  seek  us  but  wisdom  must  be  sought. 
^  N,    4.  The  race  is  not  to  the  swift  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 

5.  Occidental  manhood  springs  from  self-respect  Oriental  manhood 
finds  its  greatest  satisfaction  in  self-abasement,     v  / 

6.  The  more  discussion  the  better  if  passion  and  personality  be 
avoided  and  discussion  even  if  stormy  often  winnows  truth  from  error. 

Direction. — Assign  reasons  for  the  punctuation  of  the  independent 
clauses  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

Direction. — Using  the  copulative  and,  the  adversative  hut,  and  the 
alternative  or  or  nor,  form  compound  sentences  out  of  the  following 
simple  sentences,  and  give  the  reasons  for  your  choice  of  connectives  : — 

Read  not  that  you  may  find  material  for  argument  and  conversation. 
The  rain  descended.  Read  that  you  may  we^h  and  consider  the 
thoughts  of  others.  Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin  ?  Righteous- 
ness exalteth  a  nation.  The  floods  came.  Great^was  the  fall  of  it. 
LanguageTs'nbt  the  dress  of  thought.  Can  the  leopard  change  his 
spots  ?  The  winds  blew  and  beat  upon  that  house.  Sin  js  a  reproach 
to  any  people.     It  is  not  simply  its  vehicle.     It  fell. 

Compound  sentences  may  be  contracted  by  using  but 
once  the  parts  common  to  all  the  clauses,  and  compounding 
the  remaining  parts. 


Composition — Compound  Sentence.  137 

Example. — Time  waits  for  no  man,  and  tide  waits  for  no  mem  = 
Time  and.  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

Direction. — Contract  these  compound  sentences,  attending  carefully 
to  the  punctuation : — 

1.  Lafayette  fought  for  American  independence,  and  Baron  Steuben 
fought  for  American  independence. 

2.  The  sweet  but  fading  graces  of  inspiring  autumn  open  the  mind  to 
benevolence,  and  the  sweet  but  fading  graces  of  inspiring  autumn  dis- 
pose the  mind  for  contemplation. 

3.  The  Spirit  of  the  Almighty  is  within  us,  the  Spirit  of  the  A^ighty 

is  around  us,  and  the  Spirit  of  the  Almighty  is  above  us.    \  ^^  \x^ 

A  compound  sentence  may  be  contracted  by  simply  omit- 
ting from  one  clause  such  words  as  may  readily  be  supplied 
from  the  other.  ^^ 

Example. — He  is  witty,  but  he  is  vulgar  =  He  is  witty,  but  vulgar.  \ 

Direction. — Contract  these  sentences : — 

1.  Mirth  should  be  the  embroidery  of  conversation,  but  it  should  not 
be  the  web. 

2.  It  is  called  so,  but  it  is  improperly  called  so. 

3.  Was  Cabot  the  first  discoverer  of  America,  or  was  he  not  the  first 
discoverer  of  America  ? 

4.  William  the  Silent  has  been  likened  to  Washington,  and  he  has 
justly  been  likened  to  him. 

5.  It  was  his  address  that  pleased  me,  and  it  was  not  his  dress  that      ^ 
pleased  me.  Vx 

A  compound  sentence  may  sometimes  be  changed  to  a 
complex  sentence  without  materially  changing  the  sense. 

Example. — Take  care  of  the  minutes,  and  the  hours  will  take  care  of 
themselves  =  If  you  take  care  of  the  minutes,  the  hours  will  take  care 
of  themselves. 

Direction. — Change  these  compound  sentences  to  complex  serUences: — 

1.  Resist  the  devil,  and  he  will  flee  from  you. 


138  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

3.  Govern  your  passions,  or  they  will  govern  yon. 

3.  I  heard  that  you  wished  to  see  me,  and  I  lost  no  time  in  coming. 

4.  He  converses,  and  at  the  same  time  Le  plays  a  difiBcult  piece  of 
music. 

5.  He  was  faithful,  and  he  was  rewarded. 

Direction. — Change  one  of  the  independent  clauses  in  each  of  these 
sentences  to  a  dependent  clause,  and  then  change  the  dependent  clause  to 
a  participle  phrase  : — 

Model.— Hh.Q  house  was  built  upon  a  rock,  and  therefore  it  did  not  fall  — 
The  house  did  not  fall,  because  it  was  built  upon  a  rock  = 
The  house,  being  built  upon  a  rock,  did  not  fall. 

1.  He  found  that  he  could  not  escape,  and  so  he  surrendered. 

2.  Our  friends  heard  of  our  coming,  and  they  hastened  to  meet  us. 

Direction. —  Using  and,  but,  and  0  r  for  connectives,  compose  three 
compound  sentences,  each  containing  three  independent  clauses. 


LEiiOH  ?S. 

COMPLEX    AND    COMPOUND    CLAUSES. 

Introductory  Hinta.—Sun  and  moon  and  stars  obey.  Peter  the 
Great  went  to  Holland,  to  England,  and  to  France.  I  came,  I  saw,  1 
conquered.  Here  we  have  co-ordinate  words,  co-ordinate  phrases,  and 
co-ordinate  clauses,  that  is,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  equal  rank, 
or  order. 

Leaves  fall  so  very  quietly.  They  ate  of  the  fruit  from  the  tree  in  the 
garden.  Regulus  would  have  paused  if  he  had  been  the  man  that  he  was 
before  captivity  had  unstrung  his  sinews.  Here  just  as  the  word  modi- 
fier quietly  is  itself  modified  by  very,  and  very  by  so  ;  and  just  as  fruit, 
the  principal  word  in  a  modifying  phrase,  is  modified  by  another  phrase, 
and  the  principal  word  of  that  by  another:  so  man,  in  the  adverb  clause 


y 


Complex  and  Compound  Clauses.  139 

which  modifies  would  have  paused,  is  itself  modified  by  the  adjective 
clause  that  he  was,  and  was  by  the  adverb  clause  hefore  captivity  had 
unstrung  his  sinews.  These  three  dependent  clauses  in  the  complex 
clause  modifier,  like  the  three  words  and  the  three  phrases  in  the  com- 
plex word  modifier  and  the  complex  phrase  modifier,  are  not  co-ordi- 
nate, or  of  equal  rank. 

Mary  ma/rried  Philip  ;  hut  Elizabeth  would  not  marry,  although  Par- 
liament frequently  urged  it,  and  the  peace  of  England  demanded  it. 
This  is  a  compound  sentence,  composed  of  the  simple  clause  which  pre- 
cedes hut  and  the  complex  clause  which  follows  it— the  complex  clause 
being  composed  of  an  independent  clause  and  two  dependent  clauses, 
one  co-ordinate  with  the  other,  and  the  two  connected  by  and. 


Analysis. 

The  clauses  of  complex  and  compound  sentences  may 
themselves  be  complex,  or  compound, 

insects  hour  ,   Tiaci  passed 

\  \  \  -%  '\    i-, 

\     \    \^-hieT,^  are  admired  opp„HurM„\  T,J\e^aped 

\    \  ^"--  v.^ r\ — c 

\    \  which  ■  are\decorated _  ^  \^  ) 

\  which  .     soar   \  ^e    ^  tarried 

*^t  JExplanation.— The  first   diagram  illustrates 

earth ^\  is^round  the  analysis  of  the  compound  adjective  clause  in 

.f^  '""■ ;       (3),  below.    Each  adjective  clause  is  connected 

I  j ^      to  insects  by  which.    And  connects  the  co-ordi- 

Ee .  proved ,  /\^  nate  clauses.   The  second  diagram  shows  that  the 

clause  while  Tie  tarried  modifies  both  predicates  of 
the  independent  clauses.  While  modifies  had  passed,  had  escaped,  and  tar- 
ried, as  illustrated  by  the  short  lines  under  the  first  two  verbs  and  the  one 
over  tarried.  The  ofiice  of  while  as  connective  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 
The  third  diagram  illustrates  the  analysis  of  a  complex  sentence,  contain- 
ing a  compound  noun  clause. 


140  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

1.  Sin  has  a  great  many  tools,  but  a  lie  is  a  handle  which  fits  them 
all. 

2.  Some  one  has  said  that  the  milkman's  favorite  song  should  be, 
"Shall  we  gather  at  the  river  ? " 

3.  Some  of  the  insects  which  are  most  admired,  which  are  decorated 
with  the  most  brilliant  colors,  and  which  soar  on  the  most  ethereal 
wings,  have  passed  the  greater  portion  of  their  Jives  in  the  bowels  of 
the  earth. 

4.  Still  the  wonder  grew,  that  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he 
knew. 

5.  When  a  man  becomes  overheated  by  working,  running,  rowing, 
or  making  furious  speeches,  the  six  or  seven  millions  of  perspiration 
tubes  pour  out  their  fluid,  and  the  whole  body  is  bathed  and  cooled. 

6.  Milton  said  that  he  did  not  educate  his  daughters  in  the  lan- 
guages, because  one  tongue  was  enough  for  a  woman. 

'Y^     7.  Glaciers,  flowing  down  mountain  gorges,  obey  the  law  of  rivers  ; 
the  upper  surface  flows  faster  than  ,the  lower,  and  the  center  faster 
than  the  adjacent  sides. 
,'     8.  Not  to  wear  one's  best  things  every  day  is  a  maxim  of  New 

N  England  thrift,  which  is  as  little  disputed  as  any  verse  in  the  cate- 
chism. 

9.  In  Holland  the  stork  is  protected  by  law,  because  it  eats  the  frogs 
and  worms  that  would  injure  the  dikes. 

10.  It  is  one  of  the  most  marvelous  facts  in  the  natural  world  that, 
though  hydrogen  is  highly  inflammable,  and  oxygen  is  a  supporter  of 
combustion,  both,  combined,  form  an  element,  water,  which  is  destruc- 
tive to  fire. 

11.  In  your  war  of  1812,  when  your  arms  on  shore  were  covered  by 
disaster,  when  Winchester  had  been  defeated,  when  the  Army  of  the 
Northwest  had  surrendered,  and  when  the  gloom  of  despondency  hung, 
like  a  cloud,  over  the  land,  who  first  relit  the  fires  of  national  glory, 
and  made  the  welkin  ring  with  the  shouts  of  victory  ? 


Expansion.  141 


LESiOli  73. 


EXPANSION. 

Participles  may  be  expanded  into   different   kinds   of 
clatises. 

Direction. — Expand  the  participles  in  these  sentences  into  the  clauses 
indicated : — 

1.  Simon  Peter,  having  a  sword,  drew  it.     (Adj.  clause.) 

2.  Desiring  to  live  long,  no  one  would  be  old.     (Concession.) 

3.  They  went  to  the  temple,  suing  for  pardon.     (Purpose.) 

4.  White  garmrcnts,  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  are  cool  in  sum- 
mer.    (Cause.) 

5.  Loved  by  all,  he  must  have  a  genial  disposition.     (Reason.) 

6.  Writing  carefully,  you  will  learn  to  write  well.     (Condition.) 

7.  Sitting  there,  I  heard  the  cry  of  *'  fire  !  "    (Time.) 

8.  She  regrets  not  having  read  it.     (Noun  clause.) 

9.  The  icebergs  floated  down,  cooling  the  air  for  miles  around.   (Ind. 
clause.) 

Absolute  phrases  jRSij  he  expanded  into  different  kinds  of 
clauses. 

Direction. — Expand   these   absolute  phrases   into  the  clauses  in- 
dicated : — 

1.  Troy  being  taken  by  the  Greeks,  ^neas  came  into  Italy.     (Time.) 

2.  The  bridges  having  been  swept  away,  we  returned.     (Cause.) 

3.  A  cause  not  preceding,  no  effect  is  produced.     (Condition.) 

4.  All  things  else  being  destroyed,  virtue  could  sustain  itself.     (Con- 
cession.) 

5.  There  being  no  dew  this  morning,  it  must  have  been  cloudy  or 
windy  last  night.     (Reason.) 

6.  The  infantry  advanced,  the  cavalry  remaining  in  the  rear.     (Ind. 
Clause.) 

Infinitives  may  be  expanded  into  different  kinds  of 
clauses. 


142  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — Expand  these  infinitives  into  the  clauses  indicated : — 

1.  They  have  nothing  to  wear.     (Adj.  clause.) 

2.  The  weather  is  so  warm  as  to  dissolve  the  snow.     (Degree.) 

3.  Herod  will  seek  the  young  child  to  destroy  it.     (Purpose.) 

4.  The  adversative  sentence  faces,  so  to  speak,  half  way  about  on 
but.  (Condition.) 

5.  He  is  a  fool  to  waste  his  time  so.     (Cause.) 

6.  I  shall  be  happy  to  hear  of  your  safe  arrival.     (Time.) 

7.  He  does  not  know  where  to  go.     (Noun  clause.) 

Direction. — Complete  these  elliptical  expressions : — 

1.  And  so  shall  Regulus,  though  dead,  fight  as  he  never  fought 
before.  2.  Oh,  that  I  might  have  one  more  day  !  3.  He  is  braver 
than  wise.  4.  What  if  he  is  poor  ?  5.  He  handles  it  as  if  it  were 
glass.  6.  I  regard  him  more  as  a  historian  than  as  a  poet.  7.  He  is 
not  an  Englishman,  but  a  Frenchman.  8.  Much  as  he  loved  his  wealth, 
he  loved  his  children  better.  9.  1  will  go  whether  you  go  or  not. 
10.  It  happens  with  books  as  with  mere  acquaintances.  11.  No  ex- 
amples, however  awful,  sink  into  the  heart. 


LESS©li  SO. 

MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES   IN  REVIEW. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  Whenever  the  wandering  demon  of  Drunkenness  finds  a  ship 
adrift,  he  steps  on  board,  takes  the  helm,  and  steers  straight  for  the 
Maelstrom. — Holmes. 

2.  The  energy  which  drives  our  locomotives  and  forces  our  steamships 
through  the  waves  comes  from  the  sun. — Cooke. 

3.  No  scene  is  continually  loved  but  one  rich  by  joyful  human  labor ; 
smooth  in  field,  fair  in  garden,  full  in  orchard. — Buskin. 

4.  What  is  bolder  than  a  miller's  neck-cloth,  which  takes  a  thief  by 
the  throat  every  morning  "i— German  Proverb. 

5.  The  setting  sun  stretched  his  celestial  rods  of  light  across  the  level 


Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Review,  143 

landscape,  and  smote  the  rivers  and  the  brooks  and  the  ponds,  and  they 
became  as  blood. — Longfellow. 

6.  Were  the  happiness  of  the  next  world  as  closely  apprehended  as 
the  felicities  of  this,  it  were  a  martyrdom  to  live. — Sir  T.  Browne. 

7.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  oratory  in  me,  but  I  don't  do  as  well  as  I 
can,  in  any  one  place,  out  of  respect  to  the  memory  of  Patrick  Henry. 

8.  Van  Twiller's  full-fed  cheeks,  which  seemed  to  have  taken  toll  of 
everything  that  went  into  his  mouth,  were  curiously  mottled  and 
streaked  with  dusky  red,  like  a  spitzenberg  apple. — Irving. 

9.  The  evil  of  silencing  the  expression  of  an  opinion  is,  that  it  is 
robbing  the  human  race. — Mill. 

10.  There  is  no  getting  along  with  Johnson  ;  if  his  pistol  misses  fire, 
he  knocks  you  down  with  the  butt  of  it. — Goldsmith. 

11.  We  think  in  words  ;  and  when  we  lack  fit  words,  we  lack  fit 
thoughts. —  White. 

12.  To  speak  perfectly  well  one  must  feel  that  he  has  got  to  the 
bottom  of  his  subject. —  Whately. 

13.  Office  confers  no  honor  upon  a  man  who  is  worthy  of  it,  and  it 
will  disgrace  every  man  who  is  not. — Holland. 

14.  The  men  whom  men  respect,  the  women  whom  women  approve 
are  the  men  and  women  who  bless  their  species. — Parton, 


LESSON    SI. 


MISCELLANEOUS   EXERCISES   IN  REVIEW. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  A  ruler  who  appoints  any  man  to  an  office  when  there  is  in  his 
dominions  another  man  better  qualified  for  it  sins  against  God  and 
against  the  state. — Koran. 

2.  We  wondered  whether  the  saltness  of  the  Dead  Sea  was  not  Lot* s 
wife  in  solution. — Curtis. 

3.  There  is  a  class  among  us  so  conservative  that  they  are  afraid  the 
roof  will  come  down  if  you  sweep  off  the  cobwebs. — Phillips. 


144  1^^^  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

4.  Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets,  and  simple  faith  than  Norman 
blood. — Tennyson. 

5.  All  those  things  for  which  men  plough,  build,  or  sail  obey  virtue. 
— Sallust. 

6.  The  sea  licks  your  feet,  its  huge  flanks  purr  very  pleasantly  for 
you  ;  but  it  will  crack  your  bones  and  eat  you  for  all  that. — Holmes. 

7.  Of  all  sad  words  of  tongue  or  pen  the  saddest  are  these  :  "It 
might  have  been." — Whittier. 

8.  I  fear  three  newspapers  more  than  a  hundred-thousand  bayonets. 
— Napoleon. 

9.  He  that  allows  himself  to  be  a  worm  must  not  complain  if  he  is 
trodden  on. — Kant. 

10.  It  is  better  to  write  one  word  upon  the  rock  than  a  thousand  on 
the  water  or  the  sand. — Gladstone. 

11.  A  breath  of  New  England's  air  is  better  than  a  sup  of  Old 
England's  ale. — Higginson. 

12.  We  are  as  near  to  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land. — Sir  H.  Gilbert. 

13.  No  language  that  cannot  suck  up  the  feeding  juices  secreted  for 
it  in  the  rich  mother-earth  of  common  folk  can  bring  forth  a  sound, 
lusty  book. — Lowell. 

14.  Commend  me  to  the  preacher  who  has  learned  by  experience  what 
are  human  ills  and  what  is  human  wrong. — Country  Parson. 

15.  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best  all  things  both*  great  and  small; 
for  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us,  he  made  and  loveth  all. — Coleridge, 


iESSOU  Si. 

REVIEW. 

Show  that  an  adjective  may  be  expanded  into  an  equivalent  phrase 
or  clause.  Give  examples  of  adjective  clauses  connected  by  who,  whose, 
which,  what,  that,  whichever,  when,  where,  why,  and  show  that  each 
connective  performs  also  the  office  of  a  pronoun  or  that  of  an  adverb. 
Give  and  illustrate  fully  the  Rule  for  punctuating  the  adjective  clause, 

♦  See  Lesson  20. 


Review.  145 


and  the  Caution  regarding  the  position  of  the  adjective  clause.  Show 
that  an  adjective  clause  may  be  equivalent  to  an  infinitive  phrase  or  a 
participle  phrase. 

Show  that  an  adverb  may  be  expanded  into  an  equivalent  phrase  or 
clause.  Illustrate  the  different  kinds  of  adverb  clauses,  and  explain  the 
office  of  each  and  the  fitness  of  the  name.  Give  and  explain  fully  the 
Rule  for  the  punctuation  of  adverb  clauses.  Illustrate  the  different 
positions  of  adverb  clauses.  Illustrate  the  different  ways  of  contracting 
adverb  clauses. 


LESSON  S3. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate  the  six  different  offices  of  a  noun  clause.  Explain  the  two 
different  ways  of  treating  clauses  introduced  by  in  order  that,  etc.  Ex- 
plain the  office  of  the  expletive  it.  Illustrate  the  different  positions  of 
a  noun  clause  used  as  object  complement.  Show  how  the  noun  clause 
may  be  made  prominent.  Illustrate  the  different  ways  of  contracting 
noun  clauses.  Give  and  illustrate  fully  the  Rule  for  quotation  marks. 
Illustrate  and  explain  fully  the  distinction  between  direct  and  indirect 
quotations,  and  the  distinction  between  direct  and  indirect  questions 
introduced  into  a  sentence.  Tell  all  about  their  capitalization  and 
punctuation. 


LESSOR  S4. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate  and  explain  the  distinction  between  a  dependent  and  an  in- 
dependent  clause.  Illustrate  and  explain  the  different  ways  in  which 
independent  clauses  connected  by  and^  but,  or,  and  hence  are  related 
in  sense.  Show  how  independent  clauses  may  be  joined  in  sense  with- 
out a  connecting  word.  Define  a  clause.  Name  and  define  the  differ- 
ent kinds  of  clauses.  Name  and  define  the  different  classes  of  sentences 
10 


146  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

with  regard  to  form.  Give  the  Rule  for  the  punctuation  of  independent 
clauses,  and  illustrate  fully.  Illustrate  the  different  ways  of  contract- 
ing independent  clauses.  Show  how  an  independent  clause  may  be 
changed  to  an  equivalent  dependent  clause  and  then  to  an  equivalent 
phrase. 

Illustrate  and  explain  the  difference  between  compound  and  complex 
word  modifiers  ;  between  compound  and  complex  phrases  ;  between 
compound  and  complex  clauses. 

Give  two  or  more  participle  phrases,  two  or  more  absolute  phrases, 
and  two  or  more  infinitive  phrases,  and  expand  them  into  different 
kinds  of  clauses. 

What  three  parts  of  speech  may  connect  clauses  ? 

To  the  Teacher.— It  would  be  well  to  exercise  the  pupils  here  in  the  grouping  of 
simple  sentences  into  complex  and  compound,  and  the  resolving  of  complex  and 
compound  sentences  into  simple  ones.   Any  reading-book  will  furnish  good  material. 

Models.— In  the  desert  a  route  through  the  sand  is  alwaj-^s  preferred.  In  sandy- 
tracts  springs  are  more  likely  to  be  found.  The  sand  presents  a  soft,  dry  bed.  The 
traveler  can  repose  upon  it  after  the  fatigues  of  the  day  = 

In  the  desert  a  route  through  the  sand  is  always  preferred,  because  in  sandy  tracts 
springs  are  more  likely  to  be  found,  and  because  the  sand  presents  a  soft,  dry  bed  o/i 
which  the  traveler  can  repose  after  the  fatigues  of  the  day. 

The  breath  of  the  ocean  is  sweet.  The  winds  fill  their  mighty  lungs  with  it.  They 
strike  their  wings  for  the  shore.  They  reach  it.  They  breathe  health  and  vigor  along 
all  the  fainting,  waiting  hosts  = 

The  winds  fill  their  mighty  lungs  with  the  sweet  breath  of  ocean,  and,  striking  their 
wings  for  the  shore,  they  go  breathing  health  and  vigor  along  all  the  fainting  hosts 
that  wait  for  it. 

How  to  turn  complex  and  compound  sentences  into  simple  ones  is  here  suggested, 
of  course. 

It  might  be  well,  before  taking  up  "  Farts  of  Speech  Subdivided,'*  to  turn 
over  to  << Composition,'*  the  fourth  division,  and  exercise  the  pupils  in  the  group- 
ing of  sentences  into  Paragraphs,  and  of  Paragraphs  into  Tliemes. 


General  Review, 


147 


GENERAL     REVIEW. 

To  the  Teacher.— ThSs,  scheme  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  a  general  review. 
The  pupils  should  be  able  to  reproduce  it,  in  part  or  entire,  except  the  Let'sou 
numbers. 

Scheme  for  the  Sentence. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 

( Noun  or  Pronoun  (8). 
Subject.  \  Phrase  (38,  40). 
(Clause  (71). 

Predicate.    Verb  (11). 

Noun  or  Pronoun  (28). 
Objeet.  -{  Phrase  (38,  40), 

Clause  (71). 


Complements.  - 


C  Adjective  (29,  30). 

Participle  (37). 
Attribute.    -|  Noun  or  Pronoun  (29,  30). 

Phrase  (37,  40). 
I  Clause  (72). 

r  Adjective  (31). 
J   Participle  (37). 
j  Noun  (31). 
[  Phrase  (37,  41). 


Objective. 


Modifiers. 


Connectives. 


Adjectives  (12). 

Adverbs  (14). 

Participles  (37). 

Nouns  and  Pronouns  (33,  35). 

Phrases  (17,  37,  38,  40,  41). 

Clauses  (59,  6O,  63,  64,  65). 

Conjunctions  (20,  64,  65,  71,  76). 
Pronouns  (59,  60). 
Adverbs  (60,  63,  64)- 


^  Independent  Parts  (44). 
Classes.    Meaning.      Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative,    Ex- 


Classes.    Form. 


clamatory  (46). 
Simple,  Complex,  Compound  (76). 


148  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Additional   Selections. 

To  the  Teacher, — We  believe  that  you  will  find  the  preceding  pages  unusually  full 
and  rich  in  illustrative  selections  ;  but,  should  additional  work  be  needed  for  reviews 
or  for  maturer  classes,  the  following  selections  will  afford  profitable  study.  Let  the 
pupils  translate  these  passages  into  prose,  and  discuss  the  thought  and  the  poetic 
form,  as  well  as  the  logical  construction. 


Speak  clearly,  if  you  speak  at  all  ; 

Carve  every  word  before  you  let  it  fall. — Holmes. 

The  robin  and  the  blue-bird,  piping  loud,  ^ 

Filled  all  the  blossoming  orchards  with  their  glee  ; 

The  sparrows  chirped  as  if  they  still  were  proud 
Their  race  in  Holy  Writ  should  mentioned  be  ; 

And  hungry  crows,  assembled  in  a  crowd, 
Clamored  their  piteous  prayer  incessantly. 

Knowing  who  hears  the  ravens  cry,  and  said, 

*'  Give  us,  0  Lord,  this  day  our  daily  bread  1 " — Longfellow, 

Better  to  stem  with  heart  and  hand 

The  roaring  tide  of  life  than  lie, 
Unmindful,  on  its  flowery  strand, 

Of  God's  occasions  drifting  by. 

Better  with  naked  nerve  to  bear 

The  needles  of  this  goading  air 
Than,  in  the  lap  of  sensual  ease,  forego 
The  godlike  power  to  do,  the  godlike  aim  to  know. 

—  WhiUier, 

Then  to  side  with  Truth  is  noble  when  we  share  her 

wretched  crust, 
Ere  her  cause  bring  fame  and  profit,  and  't  is  prosperous 

to  be  just  ; 
Then  it  is  the  brave  man  chooses,  while  the  coward 

stands  aside, 
Doubting  in  his  abject  spirit,  till  his  Lord  is 

crucified. — Lowell. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH  SUBDIVIDED. 


LESS©li  Si> 

CLASSES  OF  NOUNS  AND   PRONOU'NS. 

Introductory  Hints. — ^You  have  now  reached  a  point  where  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  divide  the  eight  great  classes  of  words  into  sub- 
classes. 

You  have  learned  that  nouns  are  the  names  of  things  ;  as,  girlf  Sarah, 
The  name  girl  is  held  in  common  by  all  girls,  and  so  does  not  dis- 
tinguish one  girl  from  another.  The  name  Sarah  is  not  thus  held  in 
common  ;  it  does  distinguish  one  girl  from  other  girls.  Any  name 
which  belongs  in  common  to  all  things  of  a  class  we  call  a  Common 
Noun  ;  and  any  particular  name  of  an  individual,  distinguishing  this 
individual  from  others  of  its  class,  we  call  a  Proper  Noun.  The 
**  proper,  or  individual,  names  "  which  in  Rule  1,  Lesson  8,  you  were 
told  to  begin  with  capital  letters  are  proper  nouns. 

Such  a  word  as  wheats  musicy  or  a/rchitecture  does  not  distinguish  one 
thing  from  others  of  its  class  ;  there  is  but  one  thing  in  the  class  de- 
noted by  each,  each  thing  forms  a  class  by  itself  ;  and  so  we  call  these 
words  common  nouns. 

In  Lesson  8  you  learned  that  pronouns  are  not  names,  but  words  used 
instead  of  names.  Any  one  speaking  of  himself  may  use  J,  myy  etc., 
instead  of  his  own  name  ;  speaking  to  one,  he  may  use  you,  thou^.your, 
thy,  etc.,  instead  of  that  person's  name  ;  speaking  of  one,  he  may  use 
he,  she,  it,  him,  her,  etc.,  instead  of  that  one's  name.  These  little 
words  that  by  their  form  denote  the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the 
one  spoken  of  are  called  Personal  Pronouns. 

By  adding  self  to  my,  tJiy,  your,  him,  her,  and  it,  and  selves  to  our, 
your,  and  them,  we  form  what  are  called  Compound  Personal  Pro- 
nouns, used  either  for  emphasis  or  to  reflect  the  action  of  the  verb  back 


150  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

upon  the  actor  ;  as,  Xerxes  Jdmselfy^&s  the  last  to  cross  the  Hellespont; 
The  mind  cannot  see  itself. 

If  the  speaker  wishes  to  modify  a  noun,  or  some  word  or  words  used 
like  a  noun,  by  a  clause,  he  introduces  the  clause  by  who,  wMchy  what, 
or  tliat ;  as,  I  know  the  man  that  did  that.  These  words,  relating  to 
words  in  another  clause,  and  binding  the  clauses  together,  are  called 
Relative  Pronouns.  By  adding  emr  and  soe'Qer  to  who,  whicht  and 
what,  we  form  what  are  called  the  Compound  Relative  Pronouns 
whoever,  whosoever,  whichever,  whatever,  etc.,  used  in  a  general  way, 
and  without  any  word  expressed  to  which  they  relate. 

If  the  speaker  is  ignorant  of  the  name  of  a  person  or  a  thing  and  asks 
for  it,  he  uses  who,  which,  or  what;  a^,  Who  did  that  ?  These  pro- 
nouns, used  in  asking  questions,  are  called  Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Instead  of  naming  things  a  speaker  may  indicate  them  by  words 
pointing  them  out  as  near  or  remote  ;  as,  Is  that  *  a  man  ?  What  is 
this?  or  telling  something  of  their  number,  order,  or  quantity  ;  as, 
None  are  perfect  ;  The  latter  will  do  ;  Much  has  been  done.  Such 
words  we  call  Adjective  Pronouns. 


DEFINITIONS. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything. 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  which  belongs  to  all  things  of  a 
class. 

A  Proper  Noun  is  the  particular  name  of  an  indiyidual. 

Remark. — It  may  be  well  to  note  two  classes  of  common  nouns — 
collective  and  abstract.  A  Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  number 
of  things  taken  together ;  as,  arm^,  flock,  mob,  jury.  An  Abstract 
Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality,  an  action,  a  being,  or  a  state  ;  as,  white- 
ness, beauty,  wisdom,  (the)  singing,  movement,  (the)  sleep. 

*  Such  words  as  this  and  that  may  be  called  demonstrative  pronouns  ;  and  such 
words  as  none,  latter,  and  much,  ind^nite  pronouns. 

"The  difference  between  nouns  and  pronouns  starts  from  the  roots.  Common 
substantives  and  adjectives  are  formed  from  verbal  roots,  and  denote  quality  and 
attributes.  Pronominal  roots  denote  relations,  and  from  them  are  formed  those  sub- 
stantive and  adjective  words  which  indicate  things  by  their  relations.  The  demon- 
strative roots  are  the  most  important  of  all."— i^'of.  F.  A.  March. 


Classes  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns.  151 

A  IPronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun.* 

A  Personal  Pronoun  is  one  that,  by  its  form,  denotes  the 
speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of. 

A  Belative  Pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to  some  preceding 
word  or  words,  and  connects  clauses. 

An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  one  with  which  a  question  is 
asked. 

An  Adjective  Pronoun  is  one  that  performs  the  offices  of 
both  an  adjectiye  and  a  noun. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  : — 

/,  t7u>u,  you,  he,  she,  and  it. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  : — 
Myself,  thyself,  yourself  himself,  herself,  and  itself. 

The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  : — 
Who,  which,  j;  that,  and  wMt.X 

The  compound  relative  pronouns  are  : — 
Whoever  or  whosoever,  whichever  or  whichsoever,  wTuvtever  or  what- 
soever. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are  : — 
WTw,  which,  and  what. 

*  In  our  definition  and  general  treatment  of  the  pronoun,  we  have  conformed  to  the 
traditional  views  of  grammarians  ;  but  it  may  be  well  for  the  student  to  note  that 
pronouns  are  something  more  than  mere  substitutes  for  nouns,  and  that  their  primary 
function  is  not  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  nouns. 

Unlike  common  nouns,  which  denote  things  by  their  qualities,  pronouns  denote 
things  by  their  relations.  In  the  sentence  *'  /will  help  yow,"  /and  you  mark  the  re- 
lations of  the  persons  to  the  act  of  speaking,  /denoting  the  person  fpeaJdng  and  you 
the  one  spoken  to — a  function  that  does  not  belong  to  nouns. 

The  relation  of  the  clauses  in  the  sentence  "Whales  are  the  largest  animals  that 
swim  "  cannot  be  expressed  by  a  noun,  nor  even  by  a  noun  and  a  conjunction. 

In  the  sentence  "  What  did  you  say  ?  "  the  speaker  finds  ivhat  something  more  than 
a  substitute  for  a  noun. 

t  W/iich,  retaining  its  oflBce  as  connective,  may  accompany  its  noun  as  an  adjective; 
as,  "  I  gave  him  definite  instruction,  which  instruction  he  has  followed." 

t  As,  in  such  sentences  as  this  :  Grive  stich  things  as  you  can  spare,  may  be  treated 
as  a  relative  pronoun.  But  by  expanding  the  sentence  as  is  seen  to  be  a  conjunctive 
adverb—Give  such  things  as  those  are  which  you  can  sptire. 


152  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

Some  of  the  more  common  adjective  pronouns  are  : — 

All,  another,  any,  both,  each,  either,  enough,  few,  former,  latter, 
little,  many,  much,  neither,  none,  one,  other,  same,  several,  such,  that, 
these,  this,  those,  whole,  etc.* 

The  word,  phrase,  or  clause  in  the  place  of  which  a  pro- 
noun is  used  is  called  an  Antecedent. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  'pronouns  and  their  antecedents  in  these 
sentences : — 

Jack  was  rude  to  Tom,  and  always  knocked  off  his  hat  when  he  met 
him.  To  lie  is  cowardly,  and  every  boy  should  know  it.  Daniel  and 
his  companions  were  fed  on  pulse,  which  was  to  their  advantage.  To 
He  is  to  be  a  coward,  which  one  should  scorn  to  be.  To  sleep  soundly, 
which  is  a  blessing,  is  to  repair  and  renew  the  body. 

Who  f  (or  whose  and  whom),  which,  and  what  are  inter- 
rogative pronouns  when  the  sentence  or  clause  in  which  they 
stand  asks  a  question  directly  or  indirectly ;  they  are  rel- 
atives when  they  connect  adjective  clauses. 

Direction. — Analyze  these  sentences,  and  parse  all  the  pronouns  : — 
1.  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash.  2.  I  myself  know  who  stole 
my  purse.  3.  They  knew  whose  house  was  robbed.  4.  He  heard  what 
was  said.  5.  You  have  guessed  which  belongs  to  me.  6.  Whom  the 
gods  would  destroy  they  first  make  mad.  7.  What  was  said,  and  who 
said  it  ?  8.  It  is  not  known  to  whom  the  honor  belongs.  9.  She  saw 
one  of  them,  but  she  cannot  positively  tell  which.  10.  Whatever  is 
done  must  be  done  quickly. 

*  But  for  the  fact  that  such  words  as  brave,  good,  etc.,  in  the  phrases  the  brave,  tk« 
good,  etc.,  describe — which  pronouns  never  do— we  might  call  them  adjective  pro- 
nouns. They  may  be  treated  as  nouns,  or  as  adjectives  modifying  nouns  to  be 
supplied. 

The  is  not  always  used  with  these  adjectives  ;  as,  for  better  or  worse,  in  general,  at 
random,  in  vain,  in  particular. 

Some  adjectives  preceded  by  the  are  abstract  nouns  ;  as,  the  grand,  the  sublime,  the 
beautiful. 

+  See  Lessons  60,  61,  and  71,  for  further  treatment  of  these  words. 


Construction  of  Pronouns.  153 


LESSOR   Si« 

CONSTRUCTION  OF   PRONOUNS. 

To  the  Teacher.— In  the  recitation  of  all  Lessons  containing  errors  for  correction, 
the  pupils'  books  should  be  closed,  and  the  examples  should  be  read  by  you.  To 
insure  care  in  preparation  and  close  attention  in  the  class,  read  some  of  the  examples 
in  their  correct  form.    Require  specific  reasons. 

Caution.— Aroid  he,  it,  they,  or  any  other  pronoun  when 
its  reference  to  an  antecedent  would  not  be  clear.  Repeat 
the  noun  instead,  quote  the  speaker's  exact  words,  or  recast 
the  sentence. 

Direction. — Study  tlie  Caution,  and  relieve  these  sentences  of  their 
ambiguity : — 

Model.— HhQ  lad  cannot  leave  his  father  ;  for,  if  he  should  leave  him, 
he  would  die  =  The  lad  cannot  le^ve  his  father  ;  for,  if  he  should  leave 
Ms  father,  his  father  would  die.  Lysias  promised  his  father  never  to 
abandon  ^w  friends  =  Lysias  gave  his  father  this  promise  :  "I  will 
never  abandon  your  (or  my)  friends." 

1.  Dr.  Prideaux  says  that,  when  he  took  his  commentary  to  the 
bookseller,  he  told  him  it  was  a  dry  subject.  2.  He  said  to  his  friend 
that,  if  he  did  not  feel  better  soon,  he  thought  be  had  better  go  home. 

(This  sentence  may  have  four  meanings.  Give  them  all,  using  what 
you  may  suppose  were  the  speaker's  words.) 

3.  A  tried  to  see  B  in  the  crowd,  but  could  not,  because  he  was  so 
short.  4.  Charles's  duplicity  was  fully  made  known  to  Cromwell  by 
a  letter  of  his  to  his  wife,  which  he  intercepted.  5.  The  farmer  told 
the  lawyer  that  his  bull  had  gored  his  ox,  and  that  it  was  but  fair  that 
he  should  pay  him  for  his  loss. 

Caution, — Do  not  use  pronouns  needlessly. 
Direction. —  Write  these  sentences,  omitting  needless  pronouns  :~- 
1.  It  isn't  true  what  he  said.     2.  The  father  he  died,  the  mother  she 
f6llowed,  and  the  children  they  were  taken  sick.     3.  The  cat  it  mewed, 


1 54  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

and  the  dogs  they  barked,  and  the  man  he  shouted.  4.  Let  every  one 
turn  from  his  or  her  evil  ways.  5.  Napoleon,  Waterloo  having  been 
lost,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  English. 

Caution, — In  addressing  one,  do  not,  in  the  same  sen- 
tence, use  the  two  styles  of  the  pronoun. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution^  and  correct  these  errors : — 

1.  Thou  art  sad,  have  you  heard  bad  news  ?    2.  You  cannot  always 

have  thy  way.   3.  Bestow  thou  upon  us  your  blessing.    4.  Love  thyself 

last,  and  others  will  love  you. 

Caution, — The  pronoun  them  should  not  be  used  for  the 
adjective  those,  or  the  pronoun  what  for  the  conjunction 
that. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
1.  Hand  me  them  things.     2.  Who  knows  but  what  we  may  fail  ? 
3.  I  cannot  believe  but  what  I  shall  see  them  men  again.     4.  We  ought 
to  have  a  great  regard  for  them  that  are  wise  and  good. 

Caution.— The  relative  who  should  always  represent 
persons  ;  which,  brute  animals  and  inanimate  things  ;  that, 
persons,  animals,  and  things  ;  and  what,  things.  The  ante- 
cedent of  what  should  not  be  expressed. 

Direction.— /S^ifw^Zy  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  Those  which  say  so  are  mistaken.     2.  He  has  some  friends  which 

1  know.     3.  He  told  that  what  he  knew.    4.  The  dog  who  was  called 

Fido  went  mad.     5.  The  lion  whom  they  were  exhibiting  broke  loose. 

6.  All  what  he  saw  he  described.     7.  The  horse  whom  Alexander  rode 

was  named  Bucephalus. 

Direction.— Wrii^  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in  these 
five  Cautions* 


Construction  of  Pronouns — Continued.  155 

LESSOR  SF. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF   PRONOUNS— CONTINUED. 

Ca^^fion.— Several  connected  relative  clauses  relating  to 
the  same  antecedent  require  the  same  relative  pronoun. 
Direction. — Study  the  Caution^  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
1.  It  was  Joseph  that  was  sold  into  Egypt,  who  became  gOTernor  of 
the  land,  and  which  saved  his  father  and  brothers  from  famine.  2.  He 
who  lives,  that  moves,  and  who  has  his  being  in  God  should  not  forget 
him.  3.  This  is  the  horse  which  started  first,  and  that  reached  the 
stand  last.  4.  The  man  that  fell  overboard,  and  who  was  drowned 
was  the  first  mate. 

Caution.— When  the  relative  clause  is  not  restrictive,  and 
could  be  introduced  by  and  he,  and  it,  and  they,  etc.,  who 
or  which,  and  not  that,  is  generally  used. 

^Example. — Water,  w7iieh  (=  and  it)  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  covers  three  fourths  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  The  earth  is  enveloped  by  an  ocean  of  air,  that  is  a  compound  of 
oxygen  and  nitrogen.  3.  Longfellow,  that  is  the  most  popular  Ameri- 
can poet,  has  written  beautiful  prose.  3.  Time,  that  is  a  precious  gift, 
should  not  be  wasted.  4.  Man,  that  is  bom  of  woman,  is  of  few  days 
and  full  of  trouble. 

Caution. — The  relative  that  *  should  be  used  instead  of 
2vho  or  which  (1)  when  the  antecedent  names  both  persons 
and  things  ;  (2)  when  it  would  prevent  ambiguity  ;  and  (3) 
when  it  would  sound  better  than  who  or  which,  e.  g,,  after 

*  Some  grammarians  claim  that  the  relative  that  should  always  be  used  in  restrictive 
clauses  instead  of  wJio  or  which  ;  others  say  that  usually  it  should  be.  But  all  admU 
that  modern  writers  do  not  observe  this  distinction. 


156  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

same,  very,  all,  the  interrogative  who,  the  indefinite  it,  and 
adjectives  expressing  quality  in  the  highest  degree. 

i-'ajamjpie.— He  lived  near  a  pond  that  was  a  nuisance.  {That  relates 
to  pond — the  pond  was  a  nuisance.  Which  might  have,  for  its  ante- 
cedent, pond,  or  the  whole  clause  He  lived  near  a  pond  ;  and  so  its  use 
here  would  be  ambiguous.) 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  :— 
1.  The  wisest  men  who  ever  lived  made  mistakes.  2.  The  chief 
material  which  is  used  now  in  building  is  brick.  3.  Who  who  saw  him 
did  not  pity  him  ?  4.  He  is  the  very  man  whom  we  want.  5.  He  is 
the  same  who  he  has  ever  been.  6.  He  sent  his  boy  to  a  school  which 
did  him  good.  7.  All  who  knew  him  respected  him.  8.  It  was  not  1 
who  did  it. 

Catition,— The  relative  clause  should  be  placed  as  near  as 
possible  to  the  word  which  it  modifies. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  The  pupil  will  receive  a  reward  from  his  teacher  who  is  diligent. 
2.  Her  hair  hung  in  ringlets,  which  was  dark  and  glossy.  3.  A  dog 
was  found  in  the  street  that  wore  a  brass  collar.  4.  A  purse  was  picked 
up  by  a  boy  that  was  made  of  leather.  5.  Claudius  was  canonized 
among  the  gods,  who  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  man.  6.  He  should 
not  keep  a  horse  that  cannot  ride. 

Caution.— When  this  and  that,  these  and  those,  the  one 
and  the  other  refer  to  things  previously  mentioned,  this  and 
these  refer  to  the  last  mentioned,  and  that  and  those  to  the 
first  mentioned  ;  the  one  refers  to  the  first  mentioned,  and 
the  other  to  the  last  mentioned.  (Obscurity  is  often  pre- 
vented by  a  repetition  of  the  words  referred  to. ) 

Examples.— High  and  tall  are  synonyms  :  this  may  be  used  in  speak- 
ing of  what  grows — a  tree  ;  that  in  speaking  of  what  does  not  grow — a 
mountain.  Homer  was  a  genius,  Yirgil  an  artist :  in  t?ie  one  we  most 
admire  the  man  ;  in  the  other,  the  work. 


Construction  of  Pronouns — Continued.  157 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  Talent  speaks  learnedly  at  the  bar  ;  tact,  triumphantly  :  this  is 
complimented  by  the  bench  ;  that  gets  the  fees.  2.  Charles  XII.  and 
Peter  the  Great  were  sovereigns  :  the  one  was  loved  by  his  people  ;  the 
other  was  hated.  3.  The  selfish  and  the  benevolent  are  found  in  every 
community  ;  these  are  shunned,  while  those  are  sought  after. 

Direction.— TFn^e  correct  sentences  illustrating  eury  point  in  these 
five  Cautions, 


LESSOR  8S. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF   PRONOUNS— CONTINUED. 

Miscellaneous  Ebbobs. 

Direction. — Two  of  the  sentences  below  are  correct.  Give  the  Cautions 
which  the  other  sentences  violate,  and  correct  the  errors  ;— 

1.  He  who  does  all  which  he  can  does  enough.  2.  John's  father  died 
before  he  was  bom.  3.  Whales  are  the  largest  animals  which  swim. 
4.  Boys  who  study  hard,  and  that  study  wisely  make  progress.  5.  There 
are  miners  that  live  below  ground,  and  who  seldom  see  the  light. 
6.  He  did  that  what  was  right.  7.  General  Lee,  that  served  under 
Washington,  had  been  a  British  officer-  8.  A  man  should  sit  down  and 
count  the  cost  who  is  about  to  build  a  house.  9.  They  need  no  spec- 
tacles that  are  blind.  10.  They  buy  no  books  who  are  not  able  to  read. 
11.  Cotton,  that  is  a  plant,  is  woven  into  cloth.  12.  Cotton,  which  is 
a  plant,  is  woven  into  cloth.  13.  There  is  no  book  which,  when  we 
look  through  it  sharply,  we  cannot  find  mistakes  in  it.  14.  The  re- 
porter which  said  that  was  deceived.  15.  The  diamond,  that  is  pure 
carbon,  is  a  brilliant  gem.  16.  The  brakemen  and  the  cattle  which 
were  on  the  train  were  killed.  17.  Reputation  and  character  do  not 
mean  the  same  thing  :  the  one  denotes  what  we  are  ;  the  other,  what 
we  are  thought  to  be.  18.  Kosciusko,  having  come  to  this  country,  he 
aided  us  in  our  Revolutionary  struggle.  19.  What  pleased  me  much, 
and  which  was  spoken  of  by  others,  was  the  general  appearance  of  the 


158  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

class.  20.  There  are  many  boys  whose  fathers  and  mothers  died  when 
they  were  infants.  21.  One  does  not  know  but  that  the  future  has 
these  things  in  store  for  him.  22.  Shall  you  be  able  to  sell  them  boots? 
23.  I  don't  know  but  what  I  may.  24.  Beer  and  wine  are  favorite 
drinks  abroad :  the  one  is  made  from  grapes  ;  the  other  from  barley. 
25.  There  is  one  marked  difference  between  shiners  and  trout  ;  these 
have  scales,  and  those  have  not.  26.  All  the  means  that  grace  display 
which  drew  the  wondrous  plan.  27.  Help  thyself,  and  Heaven  will 
help  you. 

LESSOU  S©» 

CLASSES    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  learned  in  Lesson  12  that,  in  the  sentences 
Ripe  apples  are  Tiealthfuly  Unripe  apples  are  hurtful^  the  adjectives 
ripe  and  unripe  limit,  or  narrow,  the  application  of  apples  by  describ- 
ing, or  by  expressing  certain  qualities  of  the  fruit.  You  learned,  also, 
that  the,  this,  an,  no,  some,  and  many  limit,  or  narrow,  the  application 
of  any  noun  which  they  modify,  as  apple  or  apples,  by  pointing  out 
the  particular  fruit,  by  numbering  it,  or  by  denoting  the  quantity  of  it. 

Adjectives  which  limit  by  expressing  quality  are  called  Descriptive 
Adjectives  ;  and  those  which  limit  by  pointing  out,  numbering,  or  de- 
noting quantity  are  called  Definitive  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  modifying  a  noun  do  not  limit,  or  narrow,  its  application 
(1)  when  they  denote  qualities  that  always  belong  to  the  thing  named; 
as,  yellow  gold,  the  good  God,  the  blue  sky ;  or  (2)  when  they  are  attri- 
bute complements,  denoting  qualities  asserted  by  the  verb;  as.  The 
fields  were  green  ;  The  ground  was  dry  and  hard. 


DEFINITIONS. 

An  Adjective  Is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  nonn  or  a  pronoun. 

A  Descriptive  Adjective  is  one  that  limits  by  expressing 
quality. 

A  Definitive  Adjective  is  one  that  limits  by  pointing  out, 
numbering,  or  denoting  quantity. 


Construction  of  Adjectives,  159 

The  definitive  adjectives  an  or  a  and  tJie  are  commonly 
called  Articles, 
A  noun  may  take  the  place  of  an  adjective. 

XJxampies. — London  journals,  the  New  York  press,  silver  spoons, 
diamond  pin,  state  papers,  gold  bracelet. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  descriptive  and  the  definitive  adjectives 
below,  and  name  such  as  do  not  limit : — 

Able  statesmen,  much  rain,  ten  mice,  brass  kettle,  small  grains,  Man- 
sard roof,  some  feeling,  all  men,  hundredth  anniversary,  the  Pitt  dia- 
mond, the  patient  Hannibal,  little  thread,  crushing  argument,  moving 
spectacle,  the  martyr  president,  tin  pans,  eyes  are  bright,  few  people, 
less  trouble,  this  toy,  any  book,  brave  Washington,  Washington  market, 
three  cats,  slender  cord,  that  libel,  happy  children,  the  huge  clouds 
were  dark  and  threatening,  the  broad  Atlantic. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  descriptive  and  the  defi/nitive  adjectives  in 
Lessons  80  and  81,  and  tell  whether  they  denote  color,  motion, 
shape,  position,  size,  or  moral  qualities. 


LESSOil  ©0. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

Caution, — An  and  a  are  different  forms  of  one.  An  is 
used  before  vowel  sounds.  For  the  sake  of  euphony,  an 
drops  71  and  becomes  a  before  consonant  sounds.* 

Examples. — An  inkstand,  a  bag,  a  historian,  a  humble  petition^  aw 
hour  (h  is  silent),  a  unit  {unit  begins  with  the  consonant  sound  of  y), 
such  a  one  {one  begins  with  the  consonant  sound  of  w). 

*  Some  writers  still  use  an  before  such  words  as  historian,  use,  on/e  ;  but  present 
usage  favors  a. 


i6o  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
A  heir,  a  inheritance,  an  hook,  an  ewer,  an  usurper,  a  account,  an 
uniform,  an  hundred,  a  umpire,  an  hard  apple,  an  hero. 

Caution,— An  or  a  is  used  to  limit  a  noun  to  one  thing 
of  a  class — to  any  one.  The  is  used  to  distinguish  (1)  one 
thing  or  several  things  from  others,  and  (2)  one  class  of 
things  from  other  classes. 

Explanation.— We  can  say  a  horse,  meaning  any  one  horse  ;  but  we 
cannot  say  A  gold  is  heavy,  This  is  a  poor  kind  of  a  gas,  William  Pitt 
received  the  title  of  an  earl ;  because  gold,  gas,  and  earl  are  here  meant 
to  denote  each  the  whole  of  a  class,  and  a  limits  its  noun  to  one  thing 
of  a  class. 

The  horse  or  the  horses  must  be  turned  into  the  lot.  Here  the  before 
horse  distinguishes  a  certain  animal,  and  the  before  horses,  certain  ani- 
mals, from  others  of  the  same  class ;  and  the  before  lot  distinguishes  the 
field  from  the  yard  or  the  stable — things  in  other  classes.  The  horse  is 
a  noble  animal.  Here  the  distinguishes  this  class  of  animals  from  other 
classes.  But  we  cannot  say,  The  man  (meaning  the  race)  is  mortal, 
The  anger  is  a  short  madness,  The  truth  is  eternal,  The  poetry  and  the 
painting  are  fine  arts,  because  man,  anger,  truth,  poetry,  and  painting 
are  used  in  their  widest  sense,  and  name  things  that  are  suflQciently 
distinguished  without  the. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  as  explained,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  This  is  another  kind  of  a  sentence.  2.  Churchill  received  the  title 
of  a  duke.  3.  A  hill  is  from  the  same  root  as  column.  4.  Dog  is  a 
quadruped.  5.  I  expected  some  such  an  offer.  6.  The  woman  is  the 
equal  of  man.  7.  The  sculpture  is  a  fine  art.  8.  Unicorn  is  kind  of  a 
rhinoceros.     9.  Oak  is  harder  than  the  maple. 

Caution, — Use  an,  a,  or  the  before  each  of  two  or  more 
connected  adjectives,  when  these  adjectives  modify  differ- 
ent nouns,  expressed  or  understood  ;  but,  when  they  modify 
the  same  noun,  the  article  should  not  be  repeated. 

Explanation. — A  cotton  and  a  silk  umbrella  means  two  umbrellas—' 


Construction  of  Adjectives.  l6l 

one  cotton  and  the  other  silk ;  the  word  umbrella  is  understood  after 
cotton.  A  cotton  and  silk  umbrella  means  one  umbrella  partly  cotton 
and  partly  silk ;  cotton  and  silk  modify  the  same  nomi— umbrella.  The 
wise  and  the  good  means  two  classes;  the  wise  and  good  means  one 
class. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  as  explained,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  The  Northern  and  Southern  Hemisphere.  2.  The  Northern  and 
the  Southern  Hemispheres.  3.  The  right  and  left  hand.  4.  A  Pull- 
man and  Wagner  sleeping-coach.  5.  The  fourth  and  the  fifth  vei-ses. 
6.  The  fourth  and  fifth  verse.  7.  A  Webster's  and  Worcester's  dic- 
tionary. 

(7a wfion.— Repeat  an,  a,  or  the  before  connected  nouns 
denoting  things  that  are  to  be  distinguished  from  each 
other  or  emphasized. 

THrection.— Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
1.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  sin  and  sinner.  2.  We  criti- 
cise not  the  dress  but  address  of  the  speaker.  3.  A  noun  and  pronoun 
are  alike  in  oflice.  4.  Distinguish  carefully  between  an  adjective  and 
adverb.  5.  The  lion,  as  well  as  tiger,  belongs  to  the  cat  tribe.  6. 
Neither  the  North  Pole  nor  South  Pole  has  yet  been  reached.  7.  The 
secretary  and  treasurer  were  both  absent.  {The  secretary  and  treoMbrer 
was  ofts^Ti^— referring  to  one  person — is  correct.) 

Caution, — A  few  and  a  little  should  be  used  when  op- 
posed to  none  ;  few  when  opposed  to  many  ;  and  little  when 
opposed  to  much. 

Examples. — He  saved  a  few  things  and  a  little  money  from  the 
wreck.  Few  shall  part  where  many  meet.  Little  was  said  or  done 
about  it. 

'Direction.— Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  There  are  a  few  pleasant  days  in  March,  because  it  is  a  stormy 
month.      2.  He  saved  a  little  from  the  fire,  as  it  broke  out  in  the 
11 


1 62  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

night.     3.  Few  men  live  to  be  a  hundred  years  old,  but  not  many. 
4.  Little  can  be  done,  but  not  much. 

Direction. —  Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in  these 
Cautions, 


Lm%m  SI. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    ADJECTIVES- 
CONTINUED. 

Cawfiow.— Choose  apt  adjectives,  but  do  not  use  them 
needlessly ;  avoid  such  as  repeat  the  idea  or  exaggerate  it. 

Remark. — The  following  adjectives  are  obviously  needless  :  Good 
virtues;  verdant  gYQQTi\  Jpa^w/w?  toothache ;  umbrageous  sh&de. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  carefully,  and  correct  these  errors  ;— 

1.  It  was  splendid  fun.  2.  It  was  a  tremendous  dew.  3.  He  used 
less  words  than  the  other  speaker.  4.  The  lad  was  neither  docile  nor 
teachable.  6.  The  belief  in  immortality  is  common  and  universal. 
6.  It  was  a  gorgeous  apple.  7.  Tlie  arm-chair  was  roomy  and  capa- 
cious.    8.  It  was  a  lovely  bunn,  but  I  paid  a  frightful  price  for  it. 

Caution, — Place  adjectives  where  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  If  those  forming  a 
series  are  of  different  rank,  place  nearest  the  noun  the  one 
most  closely  modifying  it.  If  they  are  of  the  same  rank, 
place  them  where  they  will  sound  best — generally  in  the 
order  of  length — the  shortest  first. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
1.  A  new  bottle  of  wine.     2.  The  house  was  comfortable  and  large. 
3.  A  salt  barrel  of  pork.    4.  It  was  a  bJue  soft  beautiful  sky.     5.  A 


Classes  of  Verbs  and  Adverbs.  163 

fried  dish  of  bacon.  6.  We  saw  in  the  distance  a  precipitous,  barren, 
towering  mountain.  7.  Two  gray  fiery  little  eyes.  8.  A  docile  and 
mild  pupil.     9.  A  pupil,  docile  and  mild. 

Direction. —  Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in  these 
two  Cautions. 

Miscellaneous  Errors. 

Direction. — Two  of  the  expressions  below  are  correct.     Give  th^ 
Cautions  which  the  others  violate  and  correct  the  errors : — 

1.  I  can  bear  the  heat  of  summer,  but  not  cold  of  winter.  2.  The 
North  and  South  Pole.  3.  The  eldest  son  of  a  duke  is  called  "mar- 
quis." 4.  He  had  deceived  me,  and  so  I  had  a  little  faith  in  him.  5, 
An  old  and  young  man.  6.  A  prodigious  snow-ball  hit  my  cheek.  7. 
The  evil  is  intolerable  and  not  to  be  borne.  8.  The  fat,  two  lazy  men, 
9.  It  was  a  fearful  storm.  10.  A  white  and  red  flag  were  flying.  11 
His  unusual,  unexpected,  and  extraordinary  success  surprised  him.  13, 
He  wanted  a  apple,  an  hard  apple.  13.  A  dried  box  of  herrings 
14.  He  received  a  honor.  15.  Such  an  use  I  16.  The  day  was  delight 
ful  and  warm.  17.  Samuel  Adams's  habits  were  unostentatious, 
frugal,  and  simple.  18.  The  victory  was  complete,  though  a  few  of 
the  enemy  were  killed  or  captured.  19.  The  truth  is  mighty  and  will 
prevail.  20.  The  scepter,  the  miter,  and  coronet  seem  to  me  poor  things 
for  great  men  to  contend  for.  21.  A  few  can  swim  across  the  Straits 
of  Dover,  for  the  width  is  great  and  the  current  strong.  22.  I  have  a 
contemptible  opinion  of  you.    23.  She  has  less  friends  than  I. 


CLASSES  OF  VERBS  AND  ADVERBS. 

Introductory    Hints. — Y"ou  learned  in  Lesson  28  that  in  saying 
Washington  captured  we  do  not  fully  express  the  act  performed.    Add- 


164  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

ing  Cornwallis,  we  complete  the  predicate  by  naming  the  one  that  re- 
ceives the  act  that  passes  over  from  the  doer.  Transitive  means 
passing  over,  and  so  all  verbs  that  represent  an  action  as  passing  over 
from  a  doer  to  a  receiver  are  called  Transitive  Verbs.  If  we  say 
CornwaUis  was  captured  hy  Washington,  the  verb  is  still  transitive  ;  but 
the  object,  CornwaUis,  which  names  the  receiver,  is  here  the  subject  of 
the  sentence,  and  not,  as  before,  the  object  complement.  You  see  that 
the  object,  the  word  that  names  the  receiver  of  the  action,  may  be  the 
subject,  or  it  may  be  the  object  complement. 

All  verbs  that,  lik^  fall  in  Leaves  fall,  do  not  represent  the  action  as 
passing  over  to  a  receiver,  and  all  that  express  mere  being  or  state  of 
being  are  called  Intransitive  Verbs. 

A  verb  transitive  in  one  sentence  ;  as,  He  writes  good  English,  may 
be  intransitive  in  another  ;  as,  He  writes  well— meaning  simply  He  is  a 
good  writer.  A  verb  is  transitive  only  when  an  object  is  expressed  or 
obviously  understood. 

Washington  captured  CornwaUis.  Here  captured  represents  the 
action  as  having  taken  place  in  past  time.  Tense  means  time,  and  so 
this  verb  is  in  the  past  tense.  CornwaUis  captured,  the  tear  speedily 
closed.  Here  captured  is,  as  you  have  learned,  a  participle  ;  and,  rep- 
resenting  the  action  as  past  at  the  time  indicated  by  closed,  it  is  &  past 
participle.  Notice  that  ed  is  added  to  capture  (final  e  is  always  dropped 
when  ed  is  added)  to  form  its  past  tense  and  its  past  participle.  All 
verbs  that  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  by  adding  ed 
to  the  present  are  called  Regular  Verbs. 

All  verbs  that  do  not  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  by 
adding  ed  to  the  present  ;  as,  fall,  fell,  fallen  ;  go,  went,  gone,  are  called 
Irregular  Verbs. 

Early,  hereafter,  now,  often,  soon,  presently,  etc.,  used  to  modify  any 
verb — as  will  go  in  I  will  go  soon — by  expressing  time,  are  called  Adverbs 
of  Time. 

Away,  back,  elsewhere,  hence,  out,  within,  etc.,  used  to  modify  any 
Terb — as  will  go  in  I  will  go  away — by  expressing  direction  or  place,  are 
called  Adverbs  of  Place. 

Exceedingly,  hardly,  quite,  sufficiently,  too,  mry,  etc.,  used  to  modify 
a  word — ^as  the  adjective  hot  in  The  tea  is  very  hot—hj  expressing  degree, 
are  called  Adverbs  of  Degree. 


Classes  of  Verbs  and  Adverbs,  165 

Plainly,  so,  thus,  well,  no,  yes,*  etc.,  used  to  modify  a  word— as  spoke 
in  He  spoke  plainly — by  expressing  manner,  are  called  Adverbs  of 
Manner. 

Hence,  therefore,  why,  etc.,  used  in  making  an  inference  or  in  expres- 
sing cause — as,  It  is  dark,  7ien^e,  or  therefore,  the  sun  is  down  ;  Why 
is  it  dark  ?— are  called  Adverbs  of  Cause. 

Some  adverbs  fall  into  more  than  one  class  ;  as,  as,  and  so. 

Some  adverbs,  as  you  have  learned,  connect  clauses,  and  so  are  called 
Conjunctive  Adverbs. 


DEFINITIOIVS. 
A  Verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  action,  being,  or  state  of  being. 
An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  yerb,  an  adjectiye,  or  an 
adverb. 

Classes  op  Verbs  with  respect  to  Meaning. 
A  Transitive  Verb  is  one  tliat  requires  an  object,  f 
An  Intransitive  Verb  is  one  that  does  not  require  an  object. 

Classes  of  Verbs  with  respect  to  Form. 

A  Megular  Verb  is  one  that  forms  its  past  tense  and  past 
l»articiple  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and 
past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

*  Many  grammarians  say  that  no  and  yes  {nay  and  yea)  are  independent  when  they 
answer  questions.  But  they  seem  rather  to  modify  words  omitted  in  the  answer  but 
contained  in  the  question  ;  as,  Did  you  see  him  ?  No  =  \  did  yio  {not)  see  him  That 
the  form  no  is  not  now  used  in  an  answer  except  when  the  modified  words  are  omitted 
does  not  argue  against  the  position  taken.  Compare  whether  or  no,  condemned  by 
some,  but  good  English  nevertheless.  Other  words  change  their  form  when  the  modi- 
fied words  are  omitted  ;  as,  My  book  is  new,  Mine  is  new. 

Yes  { =  certainly)  may  be  explained  in  a  similar  way.  Some  make  of  these  words 
a  separate  part  of  speech,  and  call  them  responsives. 

t  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  that  is,  the  name  of  the  receiver  of  the  action,  may 
be  the  object  complement,  ot  it  trsly  be  the  stibject;  as,  Brutus  stabbed  Ccesar,  Coesar 
was  stabbed  by  Brutus.    See  p.  164. 


1 66  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided, 

Classes  of  Adverbs. 

Adverbs  of  Time  are  those  that  generally  answer  the  ques- 
tion,  When? 

Adverbs  of  Place  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question,   Where  9 

Adverbs  of  Degree  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question,  To  what  extent  ? 

Adverbs  of  Manner  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question,  In  what  way  9 

Adverbs  of  Cause  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question,   Why  9 

Direction. — Fqint  out  the  transiti'oe  and  the  intransitive,  the  regviar 
and  the  irregular  verbs  in  Lesson  14,  and  classify  the  adverbs. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF  ADVERBS. 

Caution.— Choose  apt  adverbs,  but  do  not  use  them  need- 
lessly or  instead  of  other  forms  of  expression  ;  avoid  such 
as  repeat  the  idea  or  exaggerate  it. 

JExampies.—l  could  ill  (not  illy)  afford  the  time.  Do  as  (not  like)  I 
do.  A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  (not  where  or  when  two 
vowels  unite)  in  the  same  syllable.  This  (not  this  here  or  'ere)  sentence 
is  correct.  He  wrote  that  (not  7iow  that)  he  had  been  sick.  The  belief 
in  immortality  is  universally  held  (not  universally  held  everywhere). 
His  nose  was  very  (not  terribly  or  frightfully)  red. 

J^irection.— Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors  : — 

1.  I  returned  back  here  yesterday.  2.  He  had  not  hardly  a  minute 
to  spare.  3.  The  affair  was  settled  amicably,  peaceably,  and  peace- 
fully.   4.  It  was  awfully  amusing.     5.  This  'ere  knife  is  dull.     6.  That 


Construction  of  Adverbs.  167 

'ere  horse  has  the  heaves.  7.  A  direct  quotation  is  when  the  exact 
words  of  another  are  copied.  8.  I  do  not  like  too  much  sugar  in  my 
tea.  9.  He  seldom  or  ever  went  home  sober.  10.  The  belief  in  im- 
mortality is  universally  held  by  all.  11.  I  am  dreadfully  glad  to  hear 
that.  12.  This  is  a  fearfully  long  lesson.  13.  He  said  how  that  he 
would  go. 

Crti^^ion..— Place  adverbs  where  there  can  be  no  doubt  as 
to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  Have  regard  to  the 
sound  also.  They  should  not  stand  between  to  and  the 
infinitive. 

Examples — I  only  rowed  across  the  river  =  I  only  (  =  alone^  an  ad- 
jective), and  no  one  else,  rowed,  etc.,  or  =  I  only  rowed,  etc.,  but  did 
not  swim  or  wade.  I  rowed  only  across  the  river  =  across,  not  up  or 
down,  etc.  I  rowed  across  the  river  only  =  the  river  only,  not  the  bay, 
etc.  Merely  to  see  (not  to  merely  see)  her  was  sufficient.  lifot  every 
coUegian  is  a  scholar  (not  Every  collegian  is  not  a  scholar). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  I  have  thought  of  marrying  often.  2.  We  only  eat  three  meals  a 
day.  3.  He  hopes  to  rapidly  recruit.  4.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 
5.  He  tries  to  distinctly  speak.  6.  He  tries  distinctly  to  speak.  7.  All 
that  glitters  is  not  gold.     8.  His  sagacity  almost  appears  miraculous. 

Caution.— Unless  you  wish  to  affirm,  do  not  use  two 
negative  words  so  that  they  shall  contradict  each  other. 

Examples.— 'No  one  hos  (not  hasn't)  yet  reached  the  North  Pole.  No 
unpleasant  circumstance  happened  (proper,  because  it  is  intended  to 
affirm). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  a/nd  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors  ;— 

1.  No  other  reason  can  never  be  given.  2.  He  doesn't  do  nothing. 
3.  He  isn't  improving  much,  I  don't  think.  4.  There  must  be  some- 
thing wrong  when  children  do  not  love  neither  father  nor  mother. 
5.  He  isn't  no  sneak.    6.  Charlie  Ross  can't  nowhere  be  found. 


1 68  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

Caution, — Do  not  use  adverbs  for  ad jectiyes  or  adjectives 
for  adverbs. 

:Exanipies.—l.  The  moon  looks  calm  and  peaceful  (not  calmly  and 
peacefully,  as  the  words  are  intended  to  describe  the  moori).  2.  The 
moon  looks  down  calmly  and  peacefully  on  the  battle  field  (not  calm 
and  peaceful,  as  the  words  are  intended  to  tell  how  she  performs  the 
act).    3.  These  terms  are  more  nearly  (not  nearer)  related. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors  : — 

1.  It  was  a  softly  blue  sky.  2.  The  river  runs  rapid.  3.  You  must 
read  more  distinct.  4.  It  was  an  uncommon  good  harvest.  5.  She  is 
most  sixteen.  6.  The  discussion  waxed  warmly.  7.  The  prima  donna 
sings  sweet.  8.  She  is  miserable  poor.  9.  My  head  feels  badly.  10. 
He  spoke  up  prompt.  11.  He  went  most  there.  13.  He  behaved  very 
bad.    13.  This  is  a  mighty  cold  day. 

"Direction.  — Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in  these 
four  Cautions. 


LEiiOl  i4. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF  ADVERBS— CONTINUED. 

Miscellaneous  Errors. 

Direction. — Three  of  these  sentences  are  correct.  Give  the  Cautions 
which  the  others  violate,  and  correct  the  errors : — 

1.  Begin  it  over  again.  2,  This  can  be  done  easier.  3.  The  house 
is  extra  warm.  4.  Most  every  one  goes  there.  5.  The  sparrow  chirps 
constantly.  6.  He  hasn't  his  lesson,  I  don't  believe.  7.  A  circle  can't 
in  no  way  be  squared.  8.  This  is  a  remarkable  cold  winter.  9.  The 
soldier  died  hard.  10.  Feathers  feel  softly.  11.  It  is  pretty  near  fin- 
ished. 12.  Verbosity  is  when  too  many  words  are  used.  13.  It  is  a 
wonderful  fine  day.  14.  He  is  some  better  just  now.  15.  Generally 
every  morning  we  went  to  the  spring.     16.  I  wish  to  simply  state  this 


Prepositions, 


169 


point.  17.  He  tried  to  not  only  injure  but  to  also  ruin  the  man. 
18.  The  lesson  was  prodigiously  long.  19.  The  cars  will  not  stop  at 
this  station  only  when  the  bell  rings.  20.  He  can  do  it  as  good  as  any 
one  can.  21.  Most  everybody  talks  so.  22.  He  hasn't  yet  gone,  1  don't 
believe.  23.  He  behaved  thoughtlessly,  recklessly,  and  carelessly. 
24.  That  'ere  book  is  readable.  25.  1  will  not  go  but  once.  26.  I  can't 
find  out  neither  where  the  lesson  begins  nor  where  it  ends.  27.  They 
were  nearly  dressed  alike.  28.  The  tortured  man  begged  that  they 
would  kill  him  again  and  again.  29.  The  fortune  was  lavishly,  pro- 
fusely, and  prodigally  spent.  30.  He  is  not  unjust.  31.  We  publish  all 
the  information,  official  and  otherwise. 


Liiion  ii. 


PREPOSITIONS. 
DEFINITION.— A  JPreposition  is  a  word  that  introdaces  a 
phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its  principal 
word  to  the  word  modified. 

Composition. 
Direction. —  We  give,  below,  a  list  of  t?ie  prepositions  in  common  use. 
Make  short  sentences,  in  which  each  of  these  shall  be  aptly  used.     Use 
two  or  three  of  them  in  a  single  sentence,  if  you  vrish : — 


Aboard, 

athwart, 

ere, 

till. 

about, 

before, 

for, 

to. 

above, 

behind. 

from. 

toward. 

across. 

below. 

in, 

towards. 

after, 

beneath. 

into. 

under. 

against. 

beside, 

of, 

underneath. 

along. 

besides. 

on. 

until. 

amid, 

between, 

over, 

unto. 

amidst, 

betwixt. 

past, 

up. 

among. 

beyond. 

round, 

upon. 

amongst, 

but, 

since. 

with. 

around, 

by, 

through, 

within. 

at. 

down, 

throughout, 

without.  - 

I/O  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided, 

Remark. — Bating,  concerning,  during,  excepting,  notwithstanding, 
'pending,  regarding,  respecting,  saving,  and  touching  are  still  par- 
ticiples in  form,  and  sometimes  are  such  in  use.  But  in  most  cases  the 
participial  meaning  has  faded  out  of  them,  and  they  express  mere  re- 
lations. 

But,  except,  and  save,  in  such  a  sentence  as,  AD  hut  or  except  or  save 
him  were  lost,  are  usually  classed  with  prepositions. 

The  phrases  aboard  of,  according  to,  along  with,  as  to,  because  of  (by 
cause  of),  from  among,  from  between,  from  under,  etc.,  instead  o/(in 
stead  of),  out  of,  over  against,  and  round  about  may  be  called  compound 
prepositions.  But  from  in  these  compounds ;  as.  He  crawled  from  under 
the  ruins,  really  introduces  a  phrase,  the  principal  term  of  which  is  the 
phrase  that  follows  from. 

Many  prepositions  become  adverbs  when  the  noun  which  ordinarily 
follows  them  is  omitted;  as,  He  rode^a*'^,  He  stands  above. 


COMPOSITION— PREPOSITIONS—CONTINUED. 

To  the  Teacher.— Most  prepositions  express  relations  so  diverse,  and  so  delicate 
in  their  shades  of  distinction  that  a  definition  of  them  based  upon  etymology  would 
mislead.  A  happy  and  discriminating  use  of  prepositions  can  be  acquired  only  by  an 
extended  study  of  good  authors.  We  do,  below,  all  that  we  think  it  prudent  or  profit- 
able to  do  with  them.  He  should  be  a  man  of  wide  and  careful  reading  who  assumes 
to  teach  pupils  that  such  prepositions,  and  such  only,  should  be  used  with  certain 
words.  Nowhere  in  grammar  is  dogmatism  more  dangerous  than  here.  That  gram- 
marian exceeds  his  commission  who  marks  out  for  the  pupils'  feet  a  path  narrower 
than  the  highwaj'  which  the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  has  cast  up.* 

*  Take  a  single  illustration  :  grammarians,  in  general,  teach  that  between  and  betwixt 
"refer  to  two,"  are  used  "  only  when  two  things  or  sets  of  things  are  referred  to." 
Ordinarily,  and  while  clinging  to  their  derivation,  they  are  so  used,  but  are  they 
always,  and  must  they  be  ?  "A  choice  between  two  or  more  alternatives/''— Mulligan. 
"There  was  a  hunting  match  agreed  upon  betwixt  a  lion,  an  ass, and  a  fox."— 
L' Estrange.  "  Between  two  or  more  authors  different  readers  will  diSer.''''- Campbell. 
"  Read  between  the  Imes.""— Matthew  Arnold.    "  The  Greeks  left  no  spaces  between 


Composition — Prepositions —  Continued,  171 

Direction. —  We  give,  helow,  a  few  words  with  the  prepositions  which 
usually  dccompany  them.  Form  short  sentences  containing  these 
words  combined  with  each  of  the  prepositions  which  follow  them,  and 
note  carefully  the  different  relations  expressed  by  the  different  preposi- 
tions : — 

(Consult  the  dictionary  for  both  the  preposition  and  the  accompany- 
ing word.) 

Abide  at,  by,  unth ;  accommodate  to,  with;  advantage  of,  oner; 
agree  to,  with  ;  angry  at,  with ;  anxious  about,  for ;  argue  against, 
with;  arrive  at,  in;  attend  on,  or  upon,  to;  careless  about,  in,  of; 
communicate  to,  with;  compare  to,  unth;  consists  in,  of;  defend 
against,  from  ;  die  by,  for,  of;  different  from  ;  disappointed  in,  of ; 
distinguish  by,  from  ;  familiar  to,  with  ;  impatient  for,  of ;  indulge  in, 
with  ;  influence  on,  over,  with ;  insensible  of,  to. 


LESiOli  m. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PREPOSITIONS. 

Direction. — Do  unth  the  following  words  as  you  were  required  to  do 

above : — 

Inquire  after,  for,  into,  of;  intrude  into,  upon;  joined  to,  toith ; 
liberal  of,  to;  live.a^,  in,  on;  look  after,  for,  on;  need  of;  obliged 
for,  to  ;  part  from,  with  ;  placed  in,  on  ;  reconcile  to,  unth  ;  regard 
for,  to ;  remonstrate  against,  with  ;  sank  beneath,  in,  into  ;  share  in, 
of,  unth  ;  sit  in,  on,  or  upon ;  smile  at,  on;  solieitons about,  for  ;  strive 
for,  unth,  against ;  taste  for,  of ;  touch  at,  on,  or  upon;  useful  for,  in, 
to  ;  weary  of,  in,  with  ;  yearn  for,  towards, 

their  words."—  WUson.  *'  Betwixt  the  slender  boughs  came  glimpses  of  her  ivory 
neck.''''— Bryant.  With  what  clumsy  circumlocutions  would  our  speech  be  filled  if 
prepositions  could  never  slip  the  leash  of  their  etymology  !  What  simple  and  grace- 
ful substitute  could  be  found  for  the  last  phrase  in  this  sentence,  for  instance:  There 
were  forty  desks  in  the  room  with  ample  space  betvoeen  them  ? 


J 2  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


LESS©1  ©Ss 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PREPOSITIONS— 
CONTINUED. 

Cat*fton.— Great  care  must  be  used  in  the  choice  of 
prepositions. 

Direction.—  Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  This  book  is  different  to  that.  2.  He  stays  to  home.  3.  They  two 
quarreled  among  each  other.  4.  He  is  in  want  for  money.  5.  I  was  fol- 
lowed with  a  crowd.  6.  He  fell  from  the  bridge  in*  the  water.  7.  He 
fought  into'^  the  Revolation.  8.  He  bears  a  close  resemblance  of  his 
father.  9.  He  entered  in  the  plot.  10.  He  lives  at  London.  11.  He 
lives  in  the  turn  of  the  road.  12.  I  have  need  for  a  vacation.  13.  The 
child  died  with  the  croup.  14.  He  took  a  walk,  but  was  disappointed 
of  it.  15.  He  did  not  take  a  walk  ;  he  was  disappointed  in  it.  16.  Ho 
was  accused  with  felony.  17.  School  keeps  upon  Monday.  18.  Place 
a  mark  between  each  leaf.  19.  He  is  angry  at  his  father.  20.  He 
placed  a  letter  into  my  hands.  21.  She  is  angry  with  your  conduct. 
22.  What  is  the  matter  of  him  ?  23.  I  saw  him  over  to  the  house.  24. 
These  plants  differ  with  each  other.  25.  He  boards  to  the  hotel.  26. 
I  board  in  the  hotel.  27.  She  stays  at  the  North.  28.  He  was  averse 
from  the  war.  29.  You  make  no  use  with  your  talents.  30.  He  threw 
himself  onto  the  bed.  31.  They  are  hard  to  work.  32.  He  distributed 
the  apples  between  his  four  brothers.  33.  He  went  in  the  park.  34. 
You  can  confide  on  him.  35.  He  arrived  to  Toronto.  36.  I  agree  with 
that  plan.  37.  The  evening  was  spent  by  reading.  38.  Can  you  accom- 
modate me  in  one  of  those  ?  39.  What  a  change  a  century  has  produced 
upon  our  country  !  40.  He  stays  to  school  late.  41.  The  year  of  the 
Restoration  plunged  Milton  in  bitter  poverty.  42.  The  Colonies  de- 
clared themselves  independent  from  England.  43.  I  spent  my  Satur- 
days by  going  in  the  country,  and  enjoying  myself  by  fishing. 

*  In  denotes  motion  or  rest  in  a  condition  or  place  ;  into,  change  from  one  condition 
or  place  into  another.  "  When  one  is  outside  of  a  place,  he  may  be  able  to  get  inta 
it ;  but  he  cannot  do  anything  in  it,  until  he  has  got  into  it." 


Construction  of  Prepositions — Continued.         173 

LESSON  ©a. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   PREPOSITIONS- 
CONTINUED. 

CauHon.—Bo  not  use  prepositions  needlessly. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  I  went  there  at  about  noon.    3.  In  what  latitude  is  Boston  in  ? 

8.  He  came  in  for  to  have  a  talk.  4.  I  started  a  week  ago  from  last 
Saturday.  5.  He  was  bom  August  15,  in  1834.  6.  A  good  place  to 
see  a  play  is  at  Wallack's.  7.  He  went  to  home.  8.  I  was  leading  of 
a  horse  about  {leading  is  transitive).  9.  By  what  state  is  Kentucky 
bounded  by  ?  10.  His  servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey.  11.  Where 
are  you  going  to  ?  12.  They  admitted  of  the  fact.  13.  Raise  your  book 
olf  of  the  table.  14.  He  took  the  poker  from  out  of  the  fire.  15.  Of 
what  is  the  air  composed  of  ?  16.  You  can  tell  by  trying  of  it.  17. 
Where  have  you  been  to  ?  18.  The  boy  is  like  to  his  father.  19.  They 
ollered  to  him  a  chair.  20.  This  is  the  subject  of  which  I  intend  to 
write  about.  21.  Butter  brings  twenty  cents  for  a  pound.  22.  Give  to 
me  a  knife.  23.  I  have  a  brother  of  five  years  old.  24.  To  what  may 
Italy  be  likened  to  ?  25.  In  about  Apiil  the  farmer  puts  in  his  seed. 
26.  Jack's  favorite  sport  was  in  robbing  orchards.  27.  Before  answer- 
ing of  you,  I  must  think.  28.  He  lives  near  to  the  river.  29.  Keep  oil 
of  the  grass. 

Caution.— Do  not  omit  prepositions  when  they  are  needed. 

■  Direction. — Correct  these  errors : — 

1.  There  is  no  use  going  there.  2.  He  is  worthy  our  help.  8.  I  was 
prevented  going.  4.  He  was  banished  the  country.  5.  He  is  un- 
worthy our  charity.  6.  What  use  is  this  to  him  ?  7.  He  was  born  on 
the  15th  August,  1834.     8.  Adam  and  Eve  were  expelled  the  garden. 

9.  It  was  the  size  of  a  pea.  10.  Egjrpt  is  the  west  side  of  the  Red  Sea. 
11.  His  efforts  were  not  for  the  great,  but  the  lowly.  12.  He  received 
dispatches  from  England  and  Russia. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  prepositions  in  Lessons  80  and  81,  and  name 
Vie  words  between  which,  in  sense,  they  show  the  relation. 


174  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


LESSON  400. 

•     CLASSES  OF   CONJUNCTIONS  AND  OTHER 
CONNECTIVES. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  stars  look  down  upon  the  roofs  of  the 
living  and  upon  the  graves  of  the  dead,  "but  neither  the  living  nor  the 
dead  are  conscious  of  their  gaze.  Here  and^  hut,  neither,  and  nor  con- 
nect words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  equal  rank,  or  order ,  and  so  are 
called  Co-ordinate  Conjunctions.  Both  clauses  may  be  independent, 
or  both  dependent  but  of  equal  rank. 

At  the  burning  of  Moscow,  it  seemed  as  [it  would  seem]  */the  heavens 
were  lighted  up  that  the  nations  might  behold  the  scene.  Here  as,  if, 
and  that  connect  each  a  lower,  or  subordinate,  clause  to  a  clause  of 
higher  rank,  and  so  are  called  Subordinate  Conjunctions.  One  clause 
may  be  independent  and  the  other  dependent,  or  both  dependent  but  of 
unequal  rank. 

DEFINITIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses.* 

Co-ordinate  Conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  of  the  same  rank. 

Subordinate  Conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  clauses 
of  different  rank. 

Remark. — Some  of  '"he  connectives  below  are  conjunctions  proper  ; 
some  are  relative  pronouns  ;  and  some  are  adverbs  or  adverb  phrases, 
which,  in  addition  to  their  office  as  modifiers,  may,  in  the  absence  of 
the  conjunction,  take  its  office  upon  themselves,  and  connect  the 
clauses. 

To  the  Teacher »— We  do  not  advise  the  memorizing  of  these  lists.  The  pupils 
should  be  able  to  name  the  different  groups,  and  some  of  the  most  common  con- 
nectives of  each. 

*  Some  of  the  co-ordinate  conjunctions,  as  and  and  but,  are  used  to  connect,  in 
thought,  sentences  separated  by  the  period,  and  even  to  connect  paragraphs.  In 
analysis  and  parsing,  we  regard  only  the  individual  sentence  and  treat  such  connect- 
ives as  introductory. 


Classes  of  Conjunctions  and  other  Connectives,    175 

CO-ORDINATE  CONNECTIVES.* 
Copulative. — And,  both  .  .   .  and,  as  well  a5,f  are  conjunctions 
proper.    Accordingly,  also,  besides,  consequently,  furthermore,  lience, 
likewise,  moreover,  now,  so,  then,  and  titer ef ore  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Adversative. — But  and  wTiereas  rtg  conjunctions  proper.  How- 
ever, nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  on  t/ie  contrary,  on  the  other  hand, 
still,  and  yet  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Alternative. — Neither,  nor,  or,  either  .  .  .  or,  and  neither  .  .  . 
nor  are  conjunctions  proper.  Else  and  otherwise  are  conjunctive 
adverbs. 

SUBORDINATE   CONNECTIVES. 
Connectives  op  Adjective  Clauses. 

Tliat,  what,  whatever,  which,  whichever,  who,  and  whoever  are  rela- 
tive pronouns.  When,  where,  whereby,  wherein,  and  why  are  conjuno- 
tive  adverbs. 

Connectives  of  Adverb  Clauses. 

Time.— After,  as,  before,  ere,  since,  tUl,  until,  when,  whenever,  while, 
and  whilst  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Place. — Whence,  where,  and  wherever  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Degree. — As,  than,  that,  and  the  are  conjunctive  adverbs,  correlative 
with  adjectives  or  adverbs. 

Manner. — As  is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  correlative,  often,  with  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb. 

BeaZ  Gatme. — As,  because,  for,  since,  and  whereas  are  conjunctions 
proper. 

Beason.— Because,  for,  and  since  are  conjunctions  proper. 

Purpose. — In  order  tliat,  lest  {=  that  not),  thM,  and  so  that  are  con- 
junctions proper. 

Condition. — Except,  if,  in  case  that,  on  condition  that,  'provided,  pro- 
vided  that,  and  unless  are  conjunctions  proper. 

Concession. — Although,  if  (—  even  if),  notwithstanding,  though,  and 
whether  are  conjunctions  proper.  However  is  a  conjunctive  adverb. 
Whatever,  whichever,  and  whoever  are  relative  pronouns  used  indefi- 
nitely. 

*  s'or  explanations  of  CqpjUative,  Adversative,  and  Alternative,  see  Lesson  76. 
t  The  as  tuell  as  in  He,  as  Well  as  I,  went ;  and  not  that  in  He  is  as  well  as  lam. 


176  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided, 

CONXECTIVES   OF  NoUN   CLAUSES. 

If,  lest,  that,  and  whether  are  conjunctions  proper.  WhM,  which, 
and  who  are  pronouns  introducing  qiestions;  how,  when,  whence,  where, 
and  why  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Direction. — Study  the  lists  above,  and  point  out  all  the  connectives  in 
Lessons  80,  and  81,  telling  which  are  relative  pronouns,  which  are  con- 
junctions proper,  and  which  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 


To  the  Teacher.— If  the  pupils  lack  maturity,  or,  if  it  is  found  necessary  to  abridge 
this  work  in  order  to  conform  to  a  prescribed  course  of  study,  the  six  following  lessons 
may  be  omitted.  The  authors  consider  these  exercises  very  profitable,  but  their 
omission  will  occasion  i^  break  in  the  course. 


COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES. 
Direction.—  Write  20  compound  sentences  whose  dauses  shMl  be  joined 
by  connectives  named  in  the  three  subdivisions  of  Co-or  dinate  con- 
nectives. 


LESiOH  i®a» 

COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 

Direction. —  Write  20  complex  sentences  whose  clauses  shall  be  joined 
by  connectives  of  adj ective  clauses,  and  by  connectives  of  ad'' 
verb  clauses  of  time,  place,  degree,  and  manner. 

LESSOR  103. 

COMPOSITION— CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 

Direction. — Write  20  complex  sentences  whose  clauses  shall  be  joined 
by  connectives  of  adverb  clauses  of  real  cause,  reason, 
purpose,  condition,  and  concession,  and  by  connectives  of 
noun  clauses.  * 


Connectives.  1 77 


LliiOH    4©4. 

CONNECTIVES. 
Analysis. 
Direction. — TeU  wTiat  kinds  of  clauses  follow  tJie  connectwes  beloWj 
and  what  are  the  usual  connectives  of  such  clauses,  and  then  analyze 

the  sentences : — 

As  may  connect  a  clause  expressin:^  manner,  time,  degree, 
cause,  or  reason. 

1.  Mount  Marey  is  not  so  high  as  Mount  Washington. 

2.  As  I  passed  by,  I  found  an  altar  with  this  inscription. 

3.  It  must  be  raining,  as  men  are  carrying  umbrellas. 

4.  Ice  floats,  as  water  expands  in  freezing. 

5.  Half-learned  lessons  slip  from  the  memory,  as  an  icicle  from  the 
hand. 

If  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  condition,  time,  con- 
cession,  or  it  may  introduce  a  7ioun  clause. 

6.  If  a  slave's  lungs  breathe  our  air,  that  moment  he  is  free. 

7.  If  wishes  were  horses,  all  beggars  might  ride. 

8.  Who  knows  if  *  one  of  the  Pleiads  is  really  missing. 

9.  If  the  flights  of  Dry  den  are  higher,  Pope  continues  longer  on 
the  wing. 

Lest  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  purpose  or  it  may 
introduce  a  noun  clause. 

10.  England  fears  lest  Russia  may  endanger  British  rule  in  India. 

11.  Watch  and  pray,  lest  ye  enter  into  temptation. 

Since   may  connect  a  clause  expressing  time,  cause,  or 
reason. 
13.  It  must  be  raining,  since  men  are  carrying  umbrellas. 

13.  Many  thousand  years  have  gone  by  since  the  Pyramids  were  built. 

14.  Since  the  Puritans  could  not  be  convinced,  they  were  persecuted. 

*  Many  grammarians  say  that  e/here  i?  improperly  used  for  whether.    But  this  use 
of  ^/'is  common  with  good  authors  in  early  and  in  modem  English. 
12 


178  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 
Direction. — TeU  what  kinds  of  clauses  follow  the  connectives  helow^ 
and  what  are  the  usual  connectives  of  such  clauses,  and  then  analyze 
the  sentences : — 

That  may  introduce  a  noun  clause  or  an  adjective  clause,' 
or  connect  a  clause  expressing  degree,  cause,  ov  purpose. 

1.  The  Pharisee  thanked  God  that  he  was  not  like  other  men. 

2.  Vesuvius  threw  its  lava  so  far  that  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 
were  buried. 

3.  The  smith  plunges  his  red-hot  iron  into  water  that  he  may- 
harden  it. 

4.  Socrates  said  that  he  who  might  be  better  employed  was  idle. 

5.  We  never  toll  our  secrets  to  people  that  pump  for  them. 

When  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  time,  cause,  con- 
dition, an  adjective  clause,  a  noun  clause,  or  it  may  connect 
co-ordinate  clauses. 

6.  The  Aztecs  were  astonished  when  they  saw  the  Spanish  horses. 

7.  November  is  the  month  when  the  deer  sheds  its  horns. 

8.  When  the  future  is  uncertain,  make  the  most  of  the  present. 

9.  When  the  five  great  European  races  left  Asia  is  a  question. 

10.  When  judges  accept  bribes,  what  may  we  expect  from  common 
people  ? 

11.  The  dial  instituted  a  formal  inquiry,  when  hands,  wheels,  and 
weights  protested  their  innocence. 

WJiere  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  place,  an  a 
live  clause,  or  a  noun  clause. 

12.  No  one  knows  the  place  where  Moses  was  buried. 

13.  Where  Moses  was  buried  is  still  a  question. 

14.  No  one  has  been  where  Moses  was  buried. 


Connectives —  Continued,  1 79 

While  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  time  or  conces- 
sion, or  it  may  connect  co-ordinate  clauses. 

15.  Napoleon  was  a  genius,  while  Wellington  was  a  man  of  talents. 
J16.  While  we  sleep,  the  body  is  rebuilt. 
17.  While  Charles  1.  had  many  excellent  traits,  he  was  a  bad  king. 


LiiSOli  40§. 

CONNECTIVES— CONTINUED. 
Analysis, 

Direction. —  Use,  the  appropriate  connectives,  and  change  these  com- 
pound sentences  to  complex  without  changing  the  meaning,  and  then 
analyze  them : — 

(Let  one  dependent  clause  be  an  adjective  clause  ;  let  three  express 
cause  ;  five,  condition  ;  and  two,  concession.) 

1.  Caesar  put  the  proffered  crown  aside,  but  he  would  fain  have 
had  it. 

2.  Take  away  honor  and  imagination  and  poetry  from  war,  and  it 
becomes  carnage. 

3.  His  crime  has  been  discovered,  and  he  must  flee. 

4.  You  must  eat,  or  you  will  die. 

5.  Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing,  therefore  get  wisdom. 

6.  Let  but  the  commons  hear  this  testament,  and  they  would  go 
and  kiss  dead  CaBsar's  wounds. 

7.  Men  are  carrying  umbrellas ;  it  is  raining. 

8.  Have  ye  brave  sons  ?  look  in  the  next  fierce  brawl  to  see  them 
die. 

9.  The  Senate  knows  this,  the  Consul  sees  it,  and  yet  the  traitor 
lives. 

10.  Take  away  the  grandeur  of  his  cause,  and  Washington  is  a  rebel 
instead  of  the  purest  of  patriots. 

11.  The  diamond  is  a  sparkling  gem,  and  it  is  pure  carbon. 


l8o  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided, 

Direction. — Two  of  the  dependent  clauses,  below,  express  condition, 
and  three  concession.  Place  an  appropriate  conjunction  before  each, 
and  (hen  analyze  the  sentences : — 

12.  Should  we  fail,  it  can  be  no  worse  for  us. 

13.  Had  the  Plantagenets  succeeded  in  France,  there  would  never 
have  been  an  England. 

14.  Were  he  my  brother,  I  could  do  no  more  for  him. 

15.  Were  I  so  disposed,  I  could  not  gratify  the  reader. 

16.  "Were  I  [Admiral  Nelson]  to  die  this  moTHQnt,  more  frigates 
would  be  found  written  on  my  heart." 


LISSOM  \m. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    CONNECTIVES. 

Caution, — Some  conjunctions  and  conjunctiye  adverbs 
may  stand  in  correlatioji  with  other  words.  A7id  may  be 
accompanied  by  both;  as  by  as,  by  so,  or  by  such  ;  hut  {but 
also  and  but  Ukeiuise)  by  not  only ;  if  by  then ;  nor  by 
neither  ;  or  by  either  or  by  whether  ;  that  by  so  ;  the  by  the; 
though  by  yet ;  when  by  then  ;  and  where  by  there. 

Be  careful  that  the  right  words  stand  in  correlation,  and 
stand  where  they  belong. 

Examples.— QfivQ  me  neither  riches  nor  (not  or)  poverty.  I  cannot 
find  either  my  book  or  (not  nor)  my  hat.  Dogs  not  only  bark  (not  not 
only  dogs  bark)  but  also  bite.  Not  only  dogs  (not  dogs  not  only)  bark 
but  wolves  also.     He  was  neither  (not  neither  was)  rich  nor  poor. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  He  not  only  gave  me  advice,  but  also  money.  2.  A  theatrical 
part  may  either  imply  some  peculiarity  of  gesture  or  a  dissimulation 
of  my  real  sentiments.  3.  She  not  only  dressed  richly  but  tastefully. 
4.  Neither  Massachusetts  or  Pennsylvania  has  the  population  of  New 
York.     5.  Thales  was  not  only  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  nature, 


Construction  of  Connectives.  i8l 

but  also  for  his  moral  wisdom.  6.  Not  only  he  is  successful,  but  ho 
deserves  to  succeed.  7.  There  was  nothing  either  strange  nor  inter- 
esting. 

Caw^ion,— Choose  apt  connectives,  but  do  not  use  them 
needlessly  or  instead  of  other  parts  of  speech. 

^acamj??©*.— Seldom,  if  (not  or^  ever,  should  an  adverb  stand  between 
to  and  the  infinitive.  I  will  try  to  (not  and)  do  better  next  time.  No 
one  can  deny  thai  (not  huf)  he  has  money.  A  harrow  is  drawn  over  the 
ground,  which  (not  and  which)  covers  the  seed.  Who  doubts  that  (not 
but  that  or  hut  what)  Napoleon  lived  ?  The  doctor  had  scarcely  left 
when  (not  hut)  a  patient  called.  He  has  no  love  for  his  father  or  (not 
nor)  for  his  mother  (the  negative  no  is  felt  throughout  the  sentence,  and 
need  not  be  repeated  by  nor).  He  was  not  well,  nor  (not  or)  was  he 
sick  {not  is  expended  in  the  first  clause ;  nor  is  needed  to  make  the 
second  clause  negative). 

Direction. — Study  the  Catttion  and  the  Examptes,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  The  excellence  of  Virgil,  and  which  he  possesses  beyond  other 
poets,  is  tenderness.  2.  Try  and  recite  the  lesson  perfectly  to-morrow. 
3.  Who  can  doubt  but  that  there  is  a  God?  4.  No  one  can  eat  nor 
drink  while  he  is  talking.  5.  He  seldom  or  ever  went  to  church.  6.  No 
one  can  deny  but  that  the  summer  is  the  hottest  season.  7.  I  do  not 
know  as  I  shall  like  it.  8.  You  will  not  succeed  without  you  are 
careful. 

Caution,— Else,  other,  otherwise,  rather,  and  adjectives 
and  adverbs  expressing  a  comparison  are  usually  followed 
by  than.  But  else,  other,  and  more,  implying  something 
additional,  but  not  different  in  kind,  may  be  followed  by 
lilt  or  besides. 

JSxampies.—X  diamond  is  nothing  else  than  carbon.  Junius  was  no 
other  than  Sir  Philip  Francis.  The  cripple  cannot  walk  otherwise  than 
on  crutches.  Americans  would  rather  travel  th^n  stay  at  home,  I 
rose  earlier  than  I  meant  to.  He  can  converse  on  other  topics  besides 
politics. 


1 82  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  Battles  are  fought  with  other  weapons  besides  pop-guns.  2.  The 
moon  is  something  else  but  green  cheese.  3.  Comwallis  could  not  do 
otherwise  but  surrender.  4.  It  was  no  other  but  the  President.  5.  He 
no  sooner  saw  the  enemy  but  he  turned  and  ran. 

Caution,— Two  or  more  connected  words  or  phrases  re- 
ferring to  another  word  or  phrase  should  each  make  good 
sense  with  it. 

JExamples.—l  have  always  (add  said)  and  still  do  say  that  labor  is 
honorable.  Shakespeare  was  greater  than  any  other  poet  that  has  (add 
lived)  or  is  now  alive.  The  boy  is  stronger  than  his  sister,  but  not  so 
tall  (not  The  boy  is  stronger,  but  not  so  tall,  as  his  sister). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors  : — 

1.  Gold  is  heavier,  but  not  so  useful,  as  iron.  2.  Gold  is  not  so  useful, 
but  heavier,  than  iron.  3.  This  is  as  valuable,  if  not  more  so,  than 
that.  4.  Faithful  boys  have  always  and  always  will  learn  the  lessons. 
5.  Bread  is  more  nutritious,  but  not  so  cheap,  as  potatoes.  6.  This 
dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book  that  has,  is,  or  shall  be  pub- 
lished. 


LESSON  l§S. 

MISCELLANEOUS    ERRORS. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors,  telling  what  Caution  each  mo^ 
lates ; — 

1.  Carthage  and  Rome  were  rival  powers:  this  city  in  Africa,  and 
that  in  Europe ;  the  one  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
the  other  on  the  southern.  2.  The  right  and  left  lung  were  diseased. 
3.  The  right  and  the  left  lungs  were  diseased.  4.  My  friend  has  sailed 
for  Europe,  who  was  here  yesterday.     5.  There  are  some  men  which 


Various  Uses  of  What,   That,  and  But.        183 

are  always  young.  6.  I  cannot  think  but  what  God  is  good.  7.  Thim- 
bles, that  are  worn  on  the  finger,  are  used  in  pushing  the  needle.  8.  A 
told  B  that  he  was  his  best  friend.    9.  Them  scissors  are  very  dull. 

10.  Ethan  Allen,  being  a  rash  man,   he  tried  to  capture  Canada. 

11.  The  lady  that  was  thrown  from  the  carriage,  and  who  was  picked 
up  insensible,  died.  12.  The  eye  and  ear  have  different  oflBces.  13.  I 
only  laugh  when  I  feel  like  it.  14.  This  is  the  same  man  who  called 
yesterday.  15.  He  was  an  humble  man.  16.  He  was  thrown  forward 
onto  his  face.  17.  A  knows  more,  but  does  not  talk  so  well,  as  B. 
18.  The  book  cost  a  dollar,  and  which  is  a  great  price.  19.  At  what 
wharf  does  the  boat  stop  at  ?  20.  The  music  sounded  harshly.  21.  He 
would  neither  go  himself  or  send  anybody.  22.  It  isn't  but  a  short 
distance.  23.  The  butter  is  splendid.  24.  The  boy  was  graceful  and 
tall.  25.  He  hasn't,  I  don't  suppose,  laid  by  much.  26.  One  would 
rather  have  few  friends  than  a  few  friends.  27.  He  is  outrageously 
proud.  28.  Not  only  the  boy  skated,  but  he  enjoyed  it.  29.  He  has 
gone  way  out  West.  30.  Who  doubts  but  what  two  and  two  are  four  ? 
31.  Some  people  never  have  and  never  will  bathe  in  salt  water.  32.  The 
problem  was  difficult  to  exactly  understand.  33.  It  was  the  length 
of  your  finger.  34.  He  bought  a  condensed  can  of  milk.  35.  The  fish 
breathes  with  other  organs  besides  lungs.  36,  The  death  is  inevitable. 
37.  She  wore  a  peculiar  kind  of  a  dress.  38.  When  shall  we  meet  to- 
gether ?    39.  He  talks  like  you  do. 


LESSOU  4oe. 

VARIOUS    USES    OF    WHAT,   THAT,  AND   BUT. 

What  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun,  an  interrogative 

pronoun,  a  definitive  adjective,  an  adverh,  and  an  inter- 


Examples.— l^Q  did  icliat  was  right.  What  did  he  say  ?  What  man  is 
happy  with  the  toothache  ?  What  with  confinement  and  what  with  bad 
diet,  the  prisoner  found  himself  reduced  to  a  skeleton  (here  uhat  = 
partly,  and  modifies  the  phrase  following  it).     What  /  you  a  lion  ? 


1 84  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

That  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun,  an  adjective  pro- 
noun, a  definitive  adjective,  a  conjunction,  and  a  conjunctive 
advert. 

Examples.— B.e  that  does  a  good  deed  is  instantly  ennobled.  That 
is  heroism.  That  man  is  a  hero.  We  eat  that  we  may  live.  It  was  so 
cold  that  the  mercury  froze. 

But  may  be  used  as  3,  conjunction,  an  adverb,  an  adjec- 
tive, and  ei  preposition, 

Examples.— The  ostrich  is  a  bird,  but  (adversative  conjunction)  it 
cannot  fly.  Not  a  sparrow  falls  but  (  =  unless — subordinate  conjunc- 
tion) Grod  wills  it.  He  was  all  but  (conjunction  or  preposition)  dead  — 
He  was  all  dead,  but  he  was  not  dead,  or  He  was  all  (anything  in  that 
line)  except  (the  climax)  dead.  No  man  is  so  wicked  but  (conjunctive  ad- 
verb) he  loves  virtue  =  No  man  is  wicked  to  that  degree  in  which  he  loves 
not  virtue  {so  —  to  that  degree,  but  =  in  which  not).  We  meet  but  (ad- 
verb =  only)  to  part.  Life  is  but  (adjective  =  only)  a  dream.  All  but 
(preposition  =  except)  him  had  fled.  The  tears  of  love  were  hopeless  but 
(preposition  =  except)  for  thee.  I  cannot  but  remember  =  I  cannot  do 
anything  but  (preposition  =  except)  remember.  There  is  no  fireside  but 
(preposition)  has  one  vacant  chair  {except  the  one  which  has) ;  or,  regard- 
ing but  as  a  negative  relative  =  thxit  not,  the  sentence  =  There  is  no 
fireside  that  has  not  one  vacant  chair. 

Direction. — Study  the  examples  given  above  ;  point  out  the  exact  use 
of  what,  that,  and  but  in  these  sentences,  and  then  analyze  tht 
sentences : — 

1.  He  did  nothing  but  laugh.  2.  It  was  once  supposed  that  crystal 
is  ice  frozen  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  thawed.  3.  What  love  equals  a 
mother's  ?  4.  There  is  nobody  here  but  me.  5.  The  fine  arts  were  all 
but  proscribed.  6.  There's  not  a  breeze  but  whispers  of  thy  name. 
7.  The  longest  life  is  but  a  day.  8.  What  if  the  bee  love  not  these 
barren  boughs  ?  9.  That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's  great  end. 
10.  What  1  I  the  weaker  vessel  ?    11.  Whom  should  I  obey  but  thee  ? 

12.  What  by  industry  and  what  by  economy,  he  had  amassed  a  fortune. 

13.  I  long  ago  found  that  out.     14.  One  should  not  always  eat  what  he 


Review  Questions.  185 


likes.  15.  There's  not  a  white  hair  on  your  face  but  should  have  its 
effect  of  gravity.  16.  It  was  a  look  that,  but  for  its  quiet,  would 
have  seemed  disdain.     17.  He  came  but  to  return. 


LESSOR  440. 


REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lemon  85. — Define  a  noun.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a  com- 
mon and  a  proper  noun  ?  Why  is  music  a  common  noun  ?  What  is  a 
collective  noun  ?  An  abstract  noun  ?  Define  a  pronoun.  What  are  the 
classes  of  pronouns  ?    Define  them.     What  is  an  antecedent  ? 

Lemon  86. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  Tie,  it,  and 
they ;  the  needless  use  of  pronouns  ;  the  two  styles  of  the  pronoun  ; 
the  use  of  them  for  thx)8e,  and  of  what  for  that ;  and  the  use  of  who, 
which,  that,  and  what. 

Lesson  87. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  connected 
relative  clauses  ;  the  relative  in  clauses  not  restrictive  ;  the  use  of  that 
instead  of  who  or  which  ;  the  position  of  the  relative  clause  ;  and  the 
use  of  this  and  that,  the  one  and  the  other. 

Lesson  89. — Define  an  adjective.  What  two  classes  are  there  ? 
Define  them.     What  adjectives  do  not  limit  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  90. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  the  use  of 
the  adjectives  an,  a,  and  the ;  and  the  use  of  a  few  and  few,  a  little 
and  little. 

Lesson  91. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  the  choice 
and  the  position  of  adjectives. 

Lesson  92. — Define  a  verb.  What  are  transitive  verbs  ?  Intransi- 
tiv^e  ?  Illustrate.  What  distinction  is  made  between  the  object  and 
the  object  complement  ?  What  are  regular  verbs  ?  Irregular  ?  Illus- 
trate. What  are  the  several  classes  of  adverbs  ?  Define  them.  What 
is  a  conjunctive  adverb  ? 

Lesson  93.— Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  the  choice 
and  position  of  adverbs,  the  use  of  double  negatives,  and  the  use  of 
adverbs  for  adjectives  and  adjectives  for  adverbs. 


1 86  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided, 


iESSOU  m, 

REVIEW  QUESTIONS— CONTINUED. 

Lesson  95. — Define  a  preposition.  Name  some  of  the  common 
prepositions.  What  is  said  of  some  ending  in  ing?  Of  hut,  except, 
and  save  ?  Of  certain  compound  prepositions  ?  When  do  prepositions 
become  adverbs  ? 

Lesson  98. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Caution  as  to  the  choice  of  prep- 
ositions.    What,  in  general,  is  the  difference  between  in  and  into  ? 

Lesson  99. — Give  and  Olustrate  the  two  Cautions  relating  to  the  use 
of  prepositions. 

Lesson  100. — Define  a  conjunction.  What  are  the  two  great  classes 
of  conjunctions,  and  what  is  their  difference  ?  What  other  parts  of 
speech  besides  conjunctions  connect  ?  What  are  adverbs  that  connect 
called  ?  Into  what  three  classes  are  co-ordinate  connectives  subdivided? 
Name  some  of  the  conjunctions  and  the  conjunctive  adverbs  of  each 
class.  What  three  kinds  of  clauses  are  connected  by  subordinate  con- 
nectives ?  The  connectives  of  adverb  clauses  are  subdivided  into  what 
classes  ?    Give  a  leading  connective  of  each  class. 

Lessons  104,  105. — Illustrate  two  or  more  offices  of  each  of  the  con- 
nectives as,  if,  lest,  since,  that,  when,  where,  and  while. 

Lesson  107.— Give  and  illustrate  the  four  Cautions  relating  to  the 
construction  of  connectives. 

Lesson  109. — Illustrate  the  offices  of  what,  that,  and  hut. 


GENERAL     REVIEW. 
Schemes  for  the  Conj.,  Prep.,  and  Int. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 
THE  CONJUNCTION.     Classes.  |  g^^^^J^^^^^^^^      1 100-107. 
THE  PREPOSITION.    No  Classes  (95,  98,  99). 
THE  INTERJECTION.     No  Classes  (20,  21). 


MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  PARTS 
OF  SPEECH. 


LESS©*!  442, 

Introductory  Hints. — You  have  learned  that  two  words  may  express 
a  thought,  and  that  the  thought  may  be  varied  by  adding  modifying 
words.  You  are  now  to  learn  that  the  meaning  or  use  of  a  word  may 
be  changed  by  simply  changing  its  form.  The  English  language  has 
lost  most  of  its  inflections,  or  forms,  so  that  many  of  the  changes  in  the 
meaning  and  the  use  of  words  are  not  now  marked  by  changes  in  form. 
These  changes  in  the  form,  meaning,  and  use  of  the  parts  of  speech  we 
call  their  Modifications.* 

*  Those  grammarians  that  attempt  to  restrict  number,  case,  mode,  etc.,— what  we 
here  call  Modifications— to  form,  find  themselves  within  bounds  which  they  con- 
tinually overleap.  They  define  nximber,  lot  instance,  as  a.  form,  or  inflection,  and  yet 
speak  of  nouns  "  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense,"  or  "  singular  in  form  but 
plural  in  sense  ;  "  that  is,  if  you  construe  them  rigorously,  plural  or  singular  in  form 
but  singular  or  plural  form  in  sense.  They  tell  you  that  case  is  hform,  and  yet  insist 
that  nouns  have  three  cases,  though  only  two  forms  ;  and  speak  of  the  nominative 
and  the  objective  case  of  the  noun,  "although  in  fact  the  two  cases  are  always  the  same 
in  form  ''''—the  twofwms  always  the  same  inform  ! 

On  the  other  hand,  those  that  make  what  we  call  Modifications  denote  only  relations 
or  conditions  of  words  cannot  cling  to  these  abstract  terms.  For  instance,  they  ask 
the  pupil  to  "pronounce  and  write  the  possessive  of  nouns,"  hardly  expecting,  we 
suppose,  that  the  "  condition  "  af  a  noun  will  be  sounded  or  written  ;  and  they  speak 
of  "  a  noun  in  the  singular  with  a  plural  application,"  in  which  expression  singtUar 
must  bo  taken  to  mean  singular  form  to  save  it  from  sheer  nonsense. 

We  know  no  way  to  steer  clear  of  Scylla  and  keep  out  of  Charybdis  but  to  do  what 
by  the  common  use  of  the  word  we  are  allowed  ;  viz.,  to  take  Modifications  with  such 
breadth  of  signification  that  it  will  apply  to  meaning  and  to  use,  as  well  as  to  form. 
Primarily,  of  course,  it  meant  inflections,  used  to  mark  changes  in  the  meaning  and 
use  of  words.  But  we  shall  use  Modiflcations  to  indicate  changes  in  meaning  and  use 
when  the  form  in  the  particular  instance  is  wanting,  nowhere,  however,  recognizing 
that  as  a  modification  which  is  not  somewhere  marked  by  form. 


1 88  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Modifications  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns. 
Number. 

TJie  hoy  shouts.  The  loys  shout.  The  form  of  the  subject  hoy  is 
changed  by  adding  an  s  to  it.  The  meaning  has  changed.  Boy  denotes 
one  lad  ;  hoys  two  or  more  lads.  This  change  in  the  form  and  the 
meaning  of  nouns  is  called  Number  ;  the  word  hoy,  denoting  one  thing, 
is  in  the  Singular  Number ;  and.  hoys,  denoting  more  than  one  thing, 
is  in  the  Plural  Number.  Number  expresses  only  the  distinction  of 
one  from  more  than  one  ;  to  express  more  precisely  how  many,  we  use 
adjectives,  and  say  two  hoys,  four  hoys,  many  or  several  hoys. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  are  changes  in 
their  form,  meaning,  and  use. 

Number  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  de- 
notes one  thing  or  more  than  one. 

The  Singular  Number  denotes  one  tiling. 

The  Plural  Number  denotes  more  than  one  tiling. 

Number  Forms. 

RULE.— The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by  adding  s  to 
the  singular. 

To  this  rule  there  are  some  exceptions. 
"When  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  that  cannot  unite  with 
that  of  s,  es  is  added  to  form  another  syllable.* 

*  In  Anglo-Saxon,  as  was  the  plural  termination  for  a  certain  class  of  nouns.  In 
later  English,  as  was  charged  to  es,  which  became  the  regular  plural  ending ;  as, 
bird-es,  doud-es.  In  modem  English,  e  is  dropped,  and  s  is  joined  to  the  singular 
without  increase  of  syllables.  But,  when  the  singular  ends  In  an  5-sound,  the  original 
syllable  es  is  retained,  as  two  hissing  sounds  will  not  unite. 


Number  Forms.  189 


Remark. — Such  words  as  Tioru^  niche,  and  cage  drop  the  final  e  when 
es  is  added.     See  Rule  1,  Lesson  127. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns,  and  note 
what  letters  represen  t  sounds  that  cannot  imite  with  the  sound  of  s : — 

Ax  or  axe,  arch,  adz  or  adze,  box,  brush,  cage,  chaise,  cross,  ditch, 
face,  gas,  glass,  hedge,  horse,  lash,  lens,  niche,  prize,  race,  topaz. 

Some  nouns  ending  in  0  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  es 
without  increase  of  syllables. 

Direction. — Form  the  plurcd  of  each  of  the  follomng  nouns  : — 
Buffalo,  calico,  cargo,  echo,  embargo,  grotto,  hero,  innuendo,  motto, 
mosquito,  mulatto,  negro,  portico,  potato,  tornado,  volcano. 

Some  nouns  in  0  preceded  by  a  consonant  add  s  only. 

Direction.— ^orm  the  plural  of  each  of  the  follomng  nouns : — 

Canto,  domino  {as  or  oes),  duodecimo,  halo,  junto,  lasso,  memento, 
octavo,  piano,  proviso,  quarto,  salvo,  solo,  two,  tyro,  zero  {as  or  oes). 

Nouns  in  0  preceded  by  a  Yowel  add  s. 

Bamboo,  cameo,  cuckoo,  embryo,  folio,  portfolio,  seraglio,  trio. 

Common  nouns  *  in  y  after  a  consonant  change  y  into  i 
and  add  es  without  increase  of  syllables.  Nouns  in  y  after 
a  vowel  add  s. 

Direction.— i^brm  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  : — 

Alley,  ally,  attorney,  chimney,  city,  colloquy, f  daisy,  essay,  fairy, 
fancy,  kidney,  lady,  lily,  money,  monkey,  mystery,  soliloquy,  turkey, 
valley,  vanity. 


♦  See  Rule  2,  Lesson  127.    In  old  English  such  words  as  lady,  fancy,  etc.,  were 
spelled  ladle,  fande.    The  modem  plural  simply  retains  the  old  ppelling  and  adds  $. 
t  V  after  5  is  a  consonant. 


190  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Some  nouns  change/ or /e  into  ves. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 
Beef,  calf,  elf,  half,  knife,  leaf,  life,  loaf,  self,  sheaf,  shelf,  staff,* 
thief,  wharf,*  wife,  wolf. 

Some  nouns  in/ and /<3  are  regular. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  : — 
Belief,  brief,  chief,  dwarf,  fife,  grief,  gulf,  hoof,  kerchief,  proof, 
reef,  roof,  safe,  scarf,  strife,  waif. 
(Nouns  in  ff,  except  staff,  are  regular  ;  as,  cuff,  cuffs,) 

Some  plurals  are  still  more  irregular. 

Direction. — Learn  to  form  the  following  plurals : — 
Child,  children  ;  foot,  feet  ;  goose,  geese  ;  louse,  lice  ;  man,  men  ; 
mouse,  mice  ;  Mr.,  Messrs. ;  ox,  oxen  ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  woman,  women. 
(For  the  plurals  of  pronouns,  see  Lesson  124.) 


LESiOH  413. 

NUMBER    FORMS— CONTINUED. 

Some  nouns  adopted  from  foreign  languages  still  retain 
their  original  plural  forms.  Some  of  these  take  the  English 
plural  also. 

Direction. — Learn  to  form  the  following  plurals  : — 
Analysis,  analyses ;  antithesis,  antitheses  ;  appendix,  appendices  or 
appendixes  ;  automaton,  automata  or  automatons  ;  axis,  axes  ;  bandit, 
banditti  or  bandits  ;  basis,   bases  ;   beau,   beaux  or  beaus  ;  cherub, 

*  Staff  (a  stick  or  support),  staves  or  stqfs  ;  staff  (a  body  of  officers),  staffs.    Th« 
compounds  of  staff  are  regular  ;  as,  fiag-staffs.    In  England,  generally  wharfs. 


Number  Forms — Continued.  191 

cherubim  or  cherubs  ;  crisis,  crises  ;  datum,  data  ;  ellipsis,  ellipses  ; 
erratum,  errata  ;  focus,  foci  ;  fungus,  fungi  or  funguses  ;  genus, 
genera  ;  hypothesis,  hypotheses  ;  ignis  fatuus,  ignes  fatui ;  madame, 
mesdames  ;  magus,  magi  ;  memorandum,  memoranda  or  memoran- 
dums ;  monsieur,  messieurs  ;  nebula,  nebulae  ;  oasis,  oases ;  parenthesis, 
parentheses  ;  phenomenon,  phenomena  ;  radius,  radii  or  radiuses  ; 
seraph,  seraphim  or  seraphs  ;  stratum,  strata  ;  synopsis,  synopses  ; 
terminus,  termini  ;  vertebra,  vertebrae  ;  vortex,  vortices  or  vortexes. 

Some  compound  nouns  in  which  the  principal  word  stands 
first  vary  the  first  word  ;  as,  sow5-in-law. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  the  following  words : — 
Aid-de-camp,     attomey-at-law,     billet-doux,     commander-in-chief, 

court-martial,  cousin-german,  father-in-law,  hanger-on,  knight-errant, 

man-of-war. 

Most  compounds  vary  the  last  word ;  as,  pailfuls,*  gentle- 
men. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 
Court-yard,  dormouse,  Englisman,  fellow-servant,  fisherman.  French- 
man,  forget-me-not,    goose-quill,    handful,    maid-servant,  man-trap, 
mouthful,  piano-forte,  porte-monnaie,  spoonful,  step-son,  tete-a-tete, 
tooth-brush. 

The  following  nouns  are  not  treated  as  compounds  of  man 
— add  s. 
Brahman,  German,  Mussulman,  Norman,  Ottoman,  talisman. 

A  few  compounds  vary  both  parts  ;  as,  man-singer,  men- 
si7igers. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 
Man-child,  man-servant,  woman-servant,  woman-singer.  y^ 

*  Pails  full  is  not  a  compound.    This  expression  denotes  a  number  of  pails,  each 
full. 


192  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Compounds  consisting  of  a  proper  name  preceded  by  a 
title  form  the  plural  by  varying  either  the  title  or  the  name  ; 
as,  the  Miss  Clarhs  or  the  Misses  Clark  ;  but,  when  the  title 
Mrs.  is  used,  the  name  is  usually  yaried  ;  as,  the  Mrs. 
Clarks* 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  the  following  compounds  : — 
Miss  Jones,  Mr.  Jones,  General  Lee,  Dr.  Brown,  Master  Green. 

A  title  used  with  two  or  more  different  names  is  made 
plural ;  as,  Drs.  Grimes  and  Steele,  Messrs.  Clark  and 
Maynard. 

Direction. — Put  each  of  the  following  expressions  in '  its  proper 
form : — 

General  Lee  and  Jackson  ;  Miss  Mary,  Julia,  and  Anna  Scott ;  Mr. 
Green,  Stacy,  &  Co. 

Letters,  figures,  and  other  characters  add  the  apostrophe 
and  s  to  form  the  plural ;  f  as,  a'5,  2'5, — ^s. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  characters  : — 
S,  i,  t,  +,  X,  *,  i  9,  1,  i,  1,  3. 


*  Of  the  two  ioTm9,t\xe  Miss  Claries  and  the  3Iisses  ClarJc,,  we  believe  that  the  former 
is  most  used  by  classical  authors.  The  latter  is  now  quite  popular ;  but,  except  in 
formal  notes  or  when  the  title  is  to  be  emphasized,  it  is  rather  stiff,  if  not  pedantic. 
Some  claim  that,  when  a  numeral  precedes  the  title,  the  name  should  always  be  varied  ; 
as,  the  two  Miss  Claries. 

The  forms,  the  Wsses  ClarJcs  and  the  two  Mrs.  Clark,  have  but  little  authority. 

t  Some  good  writers  form  the  plural  of  words  named  merely  as  words,  in  the  same 
way ;  as,  the  ifs  and  and''s  ;  but  the  (')  is  here  unnecessary. 


Number  Forms — Continued. 


193 


LESSOR  \\^. 

NUMBER    FORMS— CONTINUED. 
Some  nouns  have  two  plurals  differing  in  meaning. 
Direction. — Lea/rnto  form  the  following  plurals  ;  note  the  meaning  of 
each,  and  be  able  to  put  each  into  a  sentence : — 

^  heads      (parts     of      the 


i  brothers  (by  blood), 
brethren  (of  the  same 
society). 
{cannons  (individuals), 
cannon  (in  a  collective 
sense). 
{dies  (stamps  for  coin- 
ing), 
dice    (cubes  for  gam- 
ing)- 
j  fishes  (individuals), 

(  fish  (collection). 
( feet  (parts  of  the  body), 
( foot  (foot-soldiers), 
geniuses  (men  of  gen- 
Genius,  -l     ius), 

genii  (spirits). 


Head, 


Horse, 


j     body), 

( head  (of  cattle). 

( horses  (animals), 

( horse  (horse-soldiers). 

/-indexes  (tables  of  refer- 


Die, 


Fish,^ 


Index,  J  .  ,^!^^^)= 
mdices 


in     al- 


Foot, 


lius,  -j 


Penny, 


Sail, 


Shot, 


(signs 
*-     gebra). 

{pennies  (distinct    coins), 
"pence       (quantity       i  n 
value). 
( sails  (pieces  of  canvas), 
( sail  (vessels). 
/shots  (number  of   times 
■j     fired), 
( shot  (number  of  balls). 


Some  nouns  and  pronouns  have  the  same  form  in  both 

numbers. 

Direction. — Study  the  follovnng  list : — 

Amends,  bellows,  corps, f  deer,  gross,  grouse,  hose,  means,  odds, 
pains  (care),  series,  sheep,  species,  swine,,  vermin,  wages,  who,  which, 
that  (relative),  what,  any,  none. 

(The  following  have  two  forms  in  the  plural.) 

Apparatus,  apparatus  or  apparatuses ;  heathen,  heathen  or  heathens. 


*  The  names  of  several  sorts  of  fish,  as  herring,  shad,  trout,  etc.,  are  used  in  the 
same  waj'.    The  compounds  of  Jish,  as  codfish,  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers, 
t  The  singular  is  pronounced  kdr,  the  plural  kdrz. 
13 


194  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

(The  following  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers  when  used 
with  numerals  ;  they  add  s  in  other  cases  ;  as,  one  pair,  two  pair,  in 
pairs,  hy  scores.) 

Brace,  couple,  dozen,  pair,  score,  yoke,  hundred,  thousand. 

Some  nouns  have  no  plural. 

(These  are  generally  names  of  materials,  qualities,  or  sciences.) 
Names  of  materials  when  taken  in  their  full  or  strict  sense  can  have 
no  plural,  but  they  may  be  plural  when  kinds  of  the  material  or  things 
made  of  it  are  referred  to  ;  as,  cottons,  coffees,  tins,  coppers. 

Direction. — Study  the  following  list  of  words  : — 

Bread,  coffee,  copper,  flour,  gold,  goodness,  grammar  (science,  not  a 
book),  grass,  hay,  honesty,  iron,  lead,  marble,  meekness,  milk,  mo- 
lasses, music,  peace,  physiology,  pride,  tin,  water,  etc. 

(The  following  were  originally  plural  forms,  but  they  are  now  more 
commonly  treated  as  singular.) 

Acoustics,  ethics,  mathematics,  politics  (and  other  names  of  sciences 
in  ics),  news. 

Some  words  are  always  plural. 

(They  are  generally  names  of  things  double  or  multiform  in  their 
character.) 

Direction. — Study  the  following  list : — 

Aborigines,  annals,  ashes,  assets,  clothes,  fireworks,  hysterics, 
literati,  measles,  mumps,  nippers,  oats,*  pincers,  rickets,  scissors, 
shears,  snuffers,  suds,  thanks,  tongs,  tidings,  trowsers,  victuals, 
vitals. 

(The  following  were  originally  singular  forms,  but  they  are  now 
treated  as  plural.) 

Alms  (Anglo-Saxon,  celmesse),  eaves  (A.  S.,  efese),  riches  (Norman 
French,  richesse). 

.    *  Oat  18  sometimefi  aped,  but  a  grain  of  oats  would  be  better. 


Review  in  Number.  195 

(The  following  have  no  singular  corresponding  in  meaning.) 
Colors  (flag),  compasses  (dividers),  goods  (property),  grounds  (dregs), 
letters    (literature),   manners    (behavior),    matins    (morning    service), 
morals  (character),   remains  (dead  body),    spectacles  (glasses),   stay? 
(corsets),  vespers  (evening  service). 

(The  singular  form  is  sometimes  an  adjective.) 
Bitters,  greens,  narrows,  sweets,  valuables,  etc. 

Collective  nouns  are  treated  as  plural  when  the  individ- 
uals in  the  collection  are  thought  of,  and  as  singular  when 
the  collection  as  a  whole  is  thought  of. 

Examples. — The  committee  were  unable  to  agree,  and  they  asked  to 
be  discharged.    A  committee  was  appointed,  and  its  report  will  soon  be     7 
made.  :  ^      ^ 


(Collective  nouns  have  plural  forms ;  as,  committees,  armies.)       *P  |- 


V- 


vW-^ 


.m$m  MM, 


REVIEW    IN    NUMBER. 

Direction. — Write  the  plural  of  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns  in 
the  following  list,  and  the  singular  of  those  that  are  plural ;  give  the 
rule  or  the  remark  that  applies  to  each ;  and  note  those  that  have  no 
plural,  and  those  that  have  no  singular  : — 

Hope,  age,  bench,  bush,  house,  loss,  tax,  waltz,  potato,  shoe,  colony, 
piano,  kangaroo,  pulley,  wharf,  staff,  fife,  loaf,  flag-staff,  handker- 
chief, Mr.,  child,  ox,  beaux,  cherubim,  mesdames,  termini,  genus, 
genius,  bagnio,  theory,  galley,  muff,  mystery,  colloquy,  son-in-law, 
man-of-war,  spoonful,  maid-servant,  Frenchman,  German,  man-servant. 
Dr.  Smith,  Messrs.  Brown  and  Smith,  x ,  ^,  deer,  series,  bellows,  mo- 
lasses, pride,  politics,  news,  wages,  sun-flsh,  clothes,  alms,  goods, 
grounds,  greens,  who,  that. 

Direction. — Oive  five  words  that  have  no  plural,  five  that  have  no 
singular  J  and  five  that  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 


196  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Direction. — Correct  tlie  following  plurals,  and  gue  the  remark  that 
applies  to  each : — 

Stagees,  foxs,  mosquitos,  calicos,  heros,  soloes,  babys,  trioes, 
chimnies,  storys,  elfs,  beefs,  scarves,  oxes,  phenomenons,  axises, 
terminuses,  genuses,  mother-in-laws,  aldermans,  Mussulmen,  teeth- 
brushes,  mouthsful,  attorney-at-laws,  man-childs,  geese-quills,  2s, 
ms,  swines.  ^ 

—  V 

LESS©!  M^. 

NUMBER     FORMS     IN     CONSTRUCTION. 

The  number  of  a  noun  may  be  determined  not  only  by  its 
form,  but  also  by  the  veri,  the  adjective,  and  the  pronoun    . 
used  in  connection  with  it. 

Remark. — These  scissors  are  so  dull  that  I  cannot  use  them.  The 
plurality  of  scissors  is  here  made  known  in  four  ways.  In  the  follow- 
ing sentence  this,  is,  and  it  are  incorrectly  used :  This  scissors  is  so 
dull  that  I  cannot  use  it. 

Direction.  —  Construct  sentences  in  ivhich  the  number  of  each  of  the 
following  nouns  shall  he  indicated  hy  the  form  of  the  verb,  the 
adjectiv  e,  or  the  pronoun  used  in  connection  with  it : — 

(With  the  singular  nouns  use  the  verbs  is,  was,  and  has  been  ;  the 
adjectives  an,  one,  this,  and  that ;  the  pronouns  he,  his,  him,  she,  her, 
it,  and  its.) 

(With  the  plural  nouns  use  the  verbs  are,  were,  and  have  been ;  the 
adjectives  these,  those,  and  two  ;  the  pronouns  they,  their,  and  them.) 

Bellows,  deer,  fish,  gross,  means,  series,  species,  heathen,  pair,  trout, 
iron,  irons,  news,  wages,  eaves,  riches,  oats,  gallows,  vermin,  molasses. 
Misses,  brethren,  dice,  head  (of  cattle),  pennies,  child,  parent,  family, 
crowd,  and  meeting. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  the  first  three  of  the  following 
adjective  pronouns  shall  be  used  as  singular  subjects,  the  fourth  asaplu' 
ral  subject,  and  the  remainder  both  as  singular  and  as  plural  subjects  ;— 

Each,  either,  neither,  both,  former,  none,  all,  any. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns — Gender.  197 


NOUNS  AND  PRONOUNS— GENDER. 

Introductory  Hints.— T7^«  ^i<>7i  teas  ca^'^cf.  The  lioness  was  caged. 
In  the  first  sentence  something  is  said  about  a  male  lion,  and  in  the 
second  something  is  said  about  a  female  lion.  The  modification  of  the 
noun  to  denote  the  sex  of  the  thing  which  it  names  is  called  Gender. 
Lion,  denoting  a  male  animal,  is  in  the  Masculine  Gender ;  and  lion- 
ess, denoting  a  female  animal,  is  in  the  Feminine  Gender.  Names  of 
things  that  are  without  sex  are  said  to  be  in  the  Neuter  Gender.  Such 
nouns  as  coiisin,  child,  friend,  neighbor,  naming  things  of  whose  sex 
you  are  ignorant,  are  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

Sex  belongs  to  the  thing,  Siudgeiider  to  the  nou7i  that  names  the  thing. 
Knowing  the  sex  of  the  thing  or  its  lack  of  sex,  you  know  the  gender 
of  the  noun  in  English  that  names  it ;  for  in  our  language  gender 
follows  the  sex.  But  in  such  modem  languages  as  the  French  and  the 
German,  and  in  Latin  and  Greek,  the  gender  of  nouns  naming  things 
without  reference  to  sex  is  determined  by  the  likeness  of  their  endings 
in  sound  to  the  endings  of  words  denoting  things  with  sex.  The  Ger- 
man for  table  is  a  masctdine  noun,  the  French,  feminine,  and  the  Eng- 
lish,* of  course,  neuter. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Gender  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  de- 
notes sex. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  the  male  sex. 

The  Feminine  Gender  denotes  the  female  sex. 

The  1^ enter  Gender  denotes  want  of  sex. 

*  In  Anglo-Saxon,  the  mother-tongue  of  our  language,  gender  was  grammatical,  as 
in  the  French  and  German  ;  but  since  the  union  of  the  Norman-French  with  it  to 
form  the  English,  gender  has  followed  sex. 


198  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Gender    Forms. 

No  English  nouns  have  distinctive  neuter  forms,  but  a 
few  have  different  forms  to  distinguish  the  masculine  from 
tl[iQ  feminine. 

The  masculine  is  distinguished  from  the  feminine  in  three 
ways  : — 

1st.  By  a  difference  in  the  ending  of  the  words. 

2d.    By  different  words  in  the  compound  names. 

3d.    By  using  words  wholly  or  radically  different. 

Ess*  is  the  most  common  ending  for  feminine  nouns. 

Direction. — Form  the  feminine  of  each  of  the  following  mmculine 
nouns ly  adding  ess: — 

Author,  baron,  count,  deacon,  giant,  god  (see  Rule  3,  Lesson  127), 
heir,  host,  Jew,  lion,  patron,  poet,  prince  (see  Rule  1,  Lesson  127), 
prior,  prophet,  shepherd,  tailor,  tutor. 

(Drop  the  vowel  e  or  0  in  the  ending  of  the  masculine,  and  add  ess.) 

Actor,  ambassador,  arbiter,  benefactor,  conductor,  director,  editor, 
enchanter,  hunter,  idolater,  instructor,  preceptor,  tiger,  waiter. 

(Drop  the  masculine  er,  and  add  the  feminine  ess.) 

Adventurer,  caterer,  governor,  murderer,  sorcerer. 

(The  following  are  somewhat  irregular.) 

Direction. — Learn  these  forms : — 

Abbot,  abbess  ;  duke,  duchess  ;  emperor,  empress  ;  lad,  lass ;  mar- 
quis, marchioness  ;  master,  mistress  ;  negro,  negress. 

Ess  was  formerly  more  common  than  now.  Such  words 
as  editor  and  author  are  now  frequently  used  to  denote 
persons  of  either  sex. 

*  The  suffix  ess  came  into  the  English  language  from  the  Norman -French.  It  dis- 
placed the  feminine  termination  of  the  mother-tongue  (A.  S,  estre,  old  English  sfer). 
The  original  meaning  of  ster  is  preserved  in  spinster.  Er  (A.  S.  ere)  was  originally  a 
masculine  suffix ;  but  it  now  generally  denotes  an  agent  without  reference  to  sex ; 
as,  read-er,  speaker. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns — Gender.  199 

Direction. — Give  five  nouns  ending  in  er  or  or  tJiat  may  he  applied 
to  either  sex. 

Some  words,  mostly  foreign,  have  various  endings  in  the 
feminine. 

Direction. — Learn  tJw  following  forms  :— 

Administrator,  administratrix  ;  Augustus,  Augusta  ;  beau,  belle  ; 
Charles,  Charlotte  ;  Cornelius,  Cornelia  ;  czar,  czarina  ;  don,  donna  ; 
equestrian,  equestrienne  ;  executor,  executrix  ;  Francis,  Frances ; 
George,  Georgiana ;  Henry,  Henrietta ;  hero,  heroine ;  infante, 
infanta  ;  Jesse,  Jessie  ;  Joseph,  Josephine  ;  Julius,  Julia  or  Juliet ; 
landgrave,  landgravine  ;  Louis,  Louisa  or  Louise  ;  Paul,  Pauline  ; 
signore  or  signor,  signora  ;  sultan,  sultana ;  testator,  testatrix ; 
widower,  widow. 

In  some  compounds  distinguishing  words  are  prefixed  or 
affixed. 

Direction. — Learn  the  following  forms  : — 

Billy-goat,  nanny-goat  ;  buck-rabbit,  doe-rabbit ;  cock-sparrow,  hen- 
sparrow  ;  Englishman,  Englishwoman  ;  gentleman,  gentlewoman ; 
grand-father,  grand-mother  ;  he-bear,  she-bear  ;  landlord,  landlady  ; 
man-servant,  maid-servant ;  merman,  mermaid  ;  Mr.  Jones,  Mrs.  or 
Miss  Jones  ;  peacock,  peahen. 

Words  wholly  or  radically  different  are  used  to  distinguish 
the  masculine  from  the  feminine. 

(This  is  a  matter  pertaining  to  the  meaning  of  words  rather  than  to 
grammar.) 

Direction. — Lea/m  the  following  forms : — 

Bachelor,  maid  ;  buck,  doe  ;  drake,  duck  ;  earl,  countess  ;  friar  or 
monk,  nun  ;  gander,  goose  ;  hart,  roe  ;  lord,  lady  ;  nephew,  niece  ; 
sir,  madam  ;  stag,  hind  ;  steer,  heifer  ;  wizard,  witch  ;  youth,  damsel 
or  maiden. 


200  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  pronoun  has  three  gender  forms  : — 
Masculine  he,  feminine  she,  and  neuter  iL* 

Direction. — Give  five  examples  of  each  oftJie  three  ways  of  distinguish' 
ing  the  masculine  from  th^  feminine. 


LESION  IIS. 

GENDER   FORMS    IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

Gender  as  a  matter  of  orthography  is  of  some  importance, 
but  in  grammar  it  is  chiefly  important  as  involving  the  cor- 
rect use  of  the  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it. 

When  a  singular  noun  is  used  so  as  to  imply  persons  of 
both  sexes,  it  is  commonly  represented  by  a  masculine  pro- 
noun, t 

Example.— Eyqtj  person  has  his  faults. 

The  names  of  animals  are  often  considered  as  masculine 
or  feminine  without  regard  to  the  real  sex. 

Examples.— TYiQ  grizdy  bear  is  the  most  savage  of  his  race.  The  cat 
steals  upon  her  prey. 

Remark.— The  writer  employs  he  or  she  according  as  he  fancies  the 
animal  to  possess  masculine  or  feminine  characteristics.  He  is  more 
frequently  employed  than  sh^. 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  often  used  with  reference  to 
animals  and  very  young  children,  the  sex  being  disregarded. 

*  It,  although  a  neuter  form,  is  used  idiomatically  to  refer  to  a  male  or  a  female  ; 
as,  It  was  John,  It  was  Mary. 

t  When  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sexes,  both  the  masculine  and  the  feminine 
pronouns  should  be  used  ;  as,  Each  person  was  required  to  name  Ms  or  her  favorite 
flower. 


Gender  Forms  in  Construction.  201 

Banamplea When  the  deer  is  alarmed,  it  gives  two  or  three  graceful 

springs.     The  little  child  reached  out  its  hand  to  catch  the  sunbeam. 

Remark. — It  is  quite  generally  used  instead  of  he  or  she^  in  referring 
to  an  animal,  unless  som^  masculine  or  feminine  quality  seems  to  pre- 
dominate. 

Inanimate  things  are  often  represented  as  living  beings, 
that  is,  they  are  personified^  and  are  referred  to  "by  the  pro- 
noun tie  or  site, 

Example.— The  oak  shall  send  his  roots  abroad  and  pierce  thy  mould. 

Remark. — The  names  of  objects  distinguished  for  size,  power,  or  sub- 
limity are  regarded  as  masculine ;  and  the  names  of  those  distinguished 
for  grace,  beauty,  gentleness,  or  proditctiveness  are  considered  as  femi- 
nine.   Personification  adds  beauty  and  animation  to  style. 

Direction. — Study  what  is  said  above,  and  then  fill  each  of  the  blanks 
in  the  following  sentences  with  a  masculine,  a  feminine,  or  a  neuter 
pronoun,  and  in  each  case  give  the  reason  for  your  selection  : — 

1.  No  one  else  is  so  much  alone  in  the  universe  as who  denies 

God.    2,  A  person's  manners  not  un  frequently  indicate morals.    3. 

Everybody  should  think  for .    4.  The  forest's  leaping  panther  shall 

yield spotted  hide.    5.  The  catamount  lies  in  the  boughs  to  watch 

prey.    6.  The  mocking-bird  shook  from little  throat  floods 

of  delicious  music.    7.  The  wild  beast  from cavern  sprang,  the 

wild  bird    from grove.     8.  The  night-sparrow  trills song. 

9.  The    elephant  is   distinguished    for strength    and    sagacity. 

10.  The  bat  is  noctural  in habits.      11.  The  dog  is  faithful  to 

master.     12.  The  child  was  unconscious  of danger.     13.  The 

fox  is  noted  for cunning.     14.  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered 

then beauty  and chivalry.     15.  Despair  extends raven 

wing.      16.  Life    mocks  the    idle  hate  of  arch-enemy.    Death. 

17.  Spring  comes  forth work  of  gladness  to  contrive. ,  18.  Truth 

is  fearless,  yet is  meek  and  modest. 

Direction. —  Write  sentences  in  which  the  things  named  below  shaU  be 
personified  by  means  of  masculine  pronouns : — 
Death,  time,  winter,  war,  sun,  river,  wind. 


202  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech^ 

Direction. —  Write  sentences  in  which  the  things  named  below  shall  be 
personified  by  means  of  feminine  pronouns  : — 

Ship,  moon,  earth,  spring,  virtue,  nature,  night,  England. 

Caution,— AYoid  changing  the  gender  of  the  pronoun 
when  referring  to  the  same  antecedent. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  The  polar  bear  is  comparatively  rare  in  menageries,  as  it  suffers  po 
much  from  the  heat  that  he  is  not  easily  preserved  in  confinement. 
2.  The  cat,  when  it  comes  to  the  light,  contracts  and  elongates  the 
pupil  of  her  eye.  3.  Summer  clothes  herself  in  green,  and  decks  itself 
with  flowers.  4.  War  leaves  his  victim  on  the  field,  and  homes  desolated 
by  it  mourn  over  her  cruelty. 


iESSOU  lli» 


NOUNS  AND    PRONOUNS— PERSON  AND 
CASE. 

Introductory  Hints. — Number  and  gender,  as  you  have  learned,  are 
modifications  affecting  the  meaning  of  nouns  and  pronouns— number 
being  almost  always  indicated  hj  form,  ov  inflection  ;  gender  sometimes. 
There  are  two  other  modifications  which  do  not  refer  to  changes  in  the 
meaning  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  but  to  their  different  uses  and  relations, 
these  uses  and  relations  not  often  being  indicated  by /(9rw,  or  inflection, 

I,  Paul,  have  written.  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thyself.  He  brought 
Paul  before  Agrippa.  In  these  three  sentences  the  word  Paul  has 
three  different  uses,  though,  as  you  see,  its  form  is  not  changed.  In 
the  first  it  is  used  to  name  the  speaker  ;  in  the  second  to  name  the  one 
fpoken  to  ;  in  the  third  to  name  the  one  spoken  of.  These  different 
uses  of  nouns  and  pronouns  and  the  forms  used  to  mark  them  consti- 
tute the  modification  called  Person.  I,  thou,  and  he  are  personal  pro- 
nouns, and,  as  you  see,  distinguish  person  by  iheiv  form.  I,  denoting  the 
speaker,  is  in  the  First  Person ;  thou,  denoting  the  one  spoken  to,  is  in 


Nouns  and  Pronouns — Person  and  Case. 


203 


the  Second  Person;  and  lie^  denoting  the  one  spoken  of,  is  in  the 
Third  Person. 

Instead  of  J  a  writer  or  speaker  may  use  the  plural  we;  and  through 
courtesy  it  came  to  be  customary,  except  among  the  Friends,  or  in  the 
language  of  prayer  and  poetry,  to  use  the  plural  you  instead  of  thou. 

The  bear  killed  the  man.  The  man  killed  the  hear.  The  hearts 
grease  was  made  into  hair  oil.  In  the  first  sentence  the  animal,  bear, 
is  represented  as  performing  an  action  ;  in  the  second  as  receiving  an 
action  ;  in  the  third  as  possessing  something.  Consequently  the  word 
bear  in  these  sentences  has  three  different  uses.  These  different  uses 
of  nouns  and  pronouns  and  the  forms  used  to  mark  them  constitute 
the  modification  called  Case.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  subject  is  in 
the  Nominative  Case  ;  used  as  object  complement  is  in  the  Objective 
Case ;  and  used  to  denote  possession  is  in  tbe  Possessive  Case. 

Some  of  the  protiouns  have  a  special  form  for  each  case,  but  the  pos- 
sessive case  of  nouns  is  the  only  one  that  is  now  marked  by  a  peculiar 
form.  We  inflect,  below,*  a  noun  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  one  from 
the  Latin,  the  parent  of  the  Norman-French,  in  order  that  you  may  see 
how  cases  and  the  forms,  or  inflections,  to  mark  them  have  been  dropped 
in  English.  In  English,  prepositions  have  largely  taken  the  place  of 
case  forms,  and  it  is  thought  that  by  them  our  language  can  express  the 
many  relations  of  nouns  to  other  words  in  the  sentence  better  than  other 
languages  can  by  their  cumbrous  machinery  of  inflection. 


*  The  Anglo-Saxon  cases  are  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  vocative,  and 
instrumental;  the  Latin  are  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  vocative,  and 
ablative ;  the  English  are  nominative,  possessive  {genitive),  and  objective. 


Anglo-Saxon. 
Hlaford,  lord. 
Singular.         Plural. 
Nom.  hlaford,       hlaford-a*. 
Gen.    hlaford-ea,  hlaford-a. 
Dat.    hlaford-e,    hlaford-wwt. 
Ace.    hlaford,       hlaford-a». 
Voc.    hlaford,       hlaford-a«. 
lust,   hiaford-c  /    hlaford-Mwt. 


Latin. 
Dominus,  lord. 
Singular.         Plural. 
Nom.  domin-M«,    domin-i. 
Gen.    domin-i,       domin-oruwi. 
Dat.     domin-o,       domin-i«. 
Ace.    domin-Mwt,  domin-o*. 
Voc.    domin-c,       domin-i. 
Ab.     domin-o;      domin-i«. 


English. 
Lord. 

Singular. 
Nom.  lord, 
Pos.    lord-'*, 
Obj.    lord. 

Plural. 
Nom.  lord-5, 
Pos.    lord-*/, 
Obj.    lord-*. 


204  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Person  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes 
the  speaker,  the  one  spolien  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of. 

The  First  Person  denotes  the  one  speaking. 

The  Second  Person  denotes  the  one  spoken  to. 

The  Third  Person  denotes  the  one  spoken  of. 

A  noun  is  said  to  be  of  t\iQ  first  person  when  joined  as  an 
explanatory  modifier  to  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person  ;  as, 
/,  John,  saw  these  things ;  We  Americans  are  always  in  a 
hurry.  * 

A  noun  is  of  the  second  person  when  used  as  explanatory 
of  a  pronoun  of  the  second  person,  or  when  used  independ- 
ently as  a  term  of  address ;  as.  Ye  crags  and  peaks ;  Idle 
time,  John,  is  ruinous. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  there  shall  be  two  examples 
of  nouns  and  two  of  pronouns  used  in  each  of  the  three  persons. 

Person    Forms. 

Personal  pronou7is  and  verbs  are  the  only  classes  of  words 
that  have  distinctive  person  forms. 

Direction. — From  the  forms  of  the  pronouns  given  i^i  Lesson  124, 
select  and  write  in  one  list  all  the  first  person  forms ;  in  another  list, 
all  the  second  person  forms;  and  in  another,  all  the  third  person  forms. 

Person  is  regarded  in  grammar,  because  the  verb  some- 
times varies  its  form  to  agree  with  the  person  of  its  subject; 
as,  /  see,  Tliou  seest,  He  sees. 

*  It  is  doubtful  whether  a  noun  is  ever  of  t\iQ first  person.  It  may  be  claimed  with 
some  propriety  that,  in  the  sentence  /,  John,  saw  these  things,  John  speaks  o/"  his  own 
name,  the  expression  meaning,  7,  and  my  name  is  John,  etc. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns — Person  and  Case.         205 

DEFINITIONS. 

Case  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  denotes  its 
office  in  the  sentence. 

The  Nominative  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoufi  denotes  its 
office  as  subject  or  as  attribute  complement. 

The  Possessive  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its 
office  as  possessive  modifier. 

The  Objective  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes  its 
office  as  object  complement,  or  as  principal  word  in  a  prepositional 
phrase. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  is  said  to  be  in 
the  nominative  case. 

Examples.— 1  am,  dear  madam,  your  friend.  Alas,  poor  ToricJc! 
Ee  being  dead,  we  shall  live.    IMerty,  it  has  fled  !    (See  Lesson  44.) 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  explanatory  modifier  is  in  the 
same  case  as  the  word  explained — "is  put  by  apposition 
in  the  same  case." 

Examples.— Ths)  first  colonial  Cangress,  that  of  1774,  addressed  the 
King,  George  III.  He  buys  his  goods  at  Stewa/rt's,  the  dry-goods 
mercliant. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  objective  complement  is  in 
the  objective  case. 
Example.— Hh&j  made  him  speaker, 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  attribute  complement  of  a 
participle  or  an  infinitive  is  in  the  same  case  [Nom,  or  Ohj.) 
as  the  word  to  which  it  relates  as  attribute. 

Examples. —l^eing  an  artist,  he  appreciated  it.     I  proved  it  to  be  him. 
Remark. — When  the  assumed  subject  of  the  paiiiciple  or  the  infinitive 


2o6  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech 

is  a  possessive,  the  attribute  complement  is  said  to  be  in  the  nominative 
ease;  as,  Its  linng  he  *  should  make  no  difference.  When  the  participle 
or  the  infinitive  is  used  abstractly,  without  an  assumed  subject,  its  at- 
tribute complement  is  also  said  to  be  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  To  he 
he  *  is  to  be  a  scholar,  Being  a  scholar  is  not  being  an  idler. 

Direction. — Study  carefully  the  definitions  and  the  remarks,  above, 
and  then  compose  sentences  in  wJiich  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  shall  be  put  in 
the  nominative  case  in  four  ways  ;  in  the  objective  in  five  ways  ;  in 
the  possessive  in  two  ways. 


LlSSOfl  «0. 

ANALYSIS    AND   PARSING. 

Direction. — Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  give  the  case  of  each 

noun  and  pronoun  : — 

1.  Not  to  know  what  happened  before  we  were  born  is  to  be  always 
a  child. 

2.  His  being  a  Roman  saved  him  from  being  made  a  prisoner. 

3.  I  am  this  day  weak,  though  anointed  king. 

Explanation. — Nouns  used  adverbially  are  in  the  objective  case,  be- 
cause equivalent  to  the  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase.  (See 
Lesson  35.) 


*  The  case  of  he  in  these  examples  is  rather  doubtful.  The  nominative  and  the 
objective  forms  of  the  pronoun  occur  so  rarelj'  in  such  constructions  that  it  seems 
impossible  to  determine  the  usage.  It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  no  great  practical 
importance. 

Some,  reasoning  from  the  analogy  of  the  Latin,  would  put  the  attribute  complement 
of  the  abstract  infinitive  in  the  objective,  supposing/o^',  with  some  word,  to  be  under- 
stood; as,  For  one  to  be  him,  etc.  Others,  reasoning  from  the  analogj^  of  the  German, 
to  which  our  language  is  closely  allied,  would  put  it  in  the  nominative. 

The  assumed  subject  of  the  infinitive  being  omitted  when  it  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  principal  subject,  him,  in  the  sentence  /  wish  {me  or  myself)  to  he  him^-is  the 
proper  form,  being  in  the  same  case  as  me.  In  the  sentence  /  have  iio  doubt  of  his 
being  a  scholar,  his  is  used  instead  of  Jiim  to  prevent  ambiguity  ;  and  some  would 
put  scholar  in  the  same  case  as  him.  For  a  similar  reason  scholar  would  be  nomi- 
native in  the  sentence  His  {he)  being  a  scholar  is  beyond  doubt. 


Parsing.  207 


4.  What  made  Cromwell  a  great  man  was  his  unshaken  reliance 
on  God, 

5.  Amos,  the  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  was  not  a  prophet's  son. 

6.  Arnold's  success  as  teacher  was  remarkable. 

Explanation. — Teacher,  introduced  by  as  and  used  without  a  posses- 
sive sign,  is  explanatory  of  ArnoWs. 

7.  Worship  thy  Creator,  Gk)d  ;  and  obey  his  Son,  the  Master,  King, 
and  Saviour  of  men. 

8.  Bear  ye  one  another's  burdens. 

Explanation. — The  singular  one  is  explanatory  of  the  plural  ye,  or 
one  anotJier^s  may  be  treated  as  a  compound. 

9.  What  art  thou,  execrable  shape,  that  darest  advance  ? 

10.  0  you  hard  hearts  !  you  cruel  men  of  Rome  I 

11.  Everybody  acknowledges  Shakespeare  to  be  the  greatest  of  dram- 
atists. 

13.  Think'st  thou  this  heart  could  feel  a  moment's  joy,  thou  being 
absent  ? 

13.  Our  great  forefathers  had  left  him  naught  to  conquer  but  hia 
country. 

(For  case  of  liim  see  Explanation  of  (3),  above.) 

14.  I  will  attend  to  it  myself. 

Explanation. — Myself  may  be  treated  as  explanatory  of  /. 

15.  This  news  of  papa's*  puts  me  all  in  a  flutter. 

16.  What  means  that  hand  upon  that  breast  of  thine  ?* 


LESSON  \%\. 

PARSING. 

To  the  Teacher.— ^e  do  not  believe  that  the  chief  end  of  the  study  of  gramnuor 
is  to  be  able  to  parse  well,  or  even  to  analyze  well,  though,  without  question,  analysis 
reveals  more  clearly  than  parsing  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  and  is  immeasurably 

*  See  foot-note,  page  214. 


2o8  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

gnperior  to  it  as  intellectual  gymnastics.    We  would  not  do  away  with  parsing  alto- 
gether, but  would  give  it  a  subordinate  place. 

But  we  must  be  allowed  an  emphatic  protest  against  the  needless  and  mechanical 
quoting,  in  parsing,  of  "  Rules  of  Syntax."  When  a  pupD  has  said  that  such  a  noun 
is  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  such  a  verb,  what  is  gained  by  a  repetition  of  the 
definition  in  the  Rule  :  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is 
in  the  nominative  case  "  ?  Let  the  reasons  for  the  disposition  of  words,  when  given 
at  all,  be  specific. 

Parsing  a  word  is  giying  its  classification,  modifications, 
and  syntax  {%.  e.,  its  relation  to  other  words). 

Direction. — Select  and  parse  in  full  all  the  nov/ns  and  pronowns 
found  in  the  fust  ten  sentences  of  Lesson  120.  For  the  agreement  of 
pronouns,  see  Less.  142. 

Model  for  Written  Parsing. — Elizabeth^ 8  favorite^  Raleigh^  was  he- 
headed  by  James  /. 


CLASSIFICATION. 

MODEPICATIONS. 

Nouns. 

Elizabeth's 
favorite 
Raleigh 
James  I. 

Kind. 

Prop. 
Com. 
Prop. 

Person. 
3d. 

Number. 
Sing. 

Gender. 

Fem, 
Mas. 

Case. 

Pos. 

Nom. 

Obj. 

Pos.  Mod.  of  favorite. 
Sub.  of  was  beheaded. 
Exp.  Mod.  of  favorite. 
Prin.  word  in  Prep,  phrase. 

To  the  Teacher.— "For  exercises  in  parsing  nonns  and  pronouns,  see  Lessons  28, 
29,  30,  31,  33,  34,  35,  44,  46,  59,  60,  71,  73,  78,  80,  and  81.  Other  exercises  may  be  se- 
lected from  examples  previously  given  for  analysis,  and  parsing  continued  as  long  as 
you  think  it  profitable. 


LESSOfi  1^2. 

CASE     FORMS— NOUNS. 

Nouns  haye  two  case  forms,  the  simple  form,  common  to 
the  nominative  and  the  objective  case,  and  Hie  possessive  form, 

RULE.— The  possessive  case  of  nonns  is  formed  in  the  singu- 
lar by  adding  to  the  nominative  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  8 


Case  Forms — Nouns.  209 

(^«) ;  in  the  plural,  by  adding  (')  only.  If  the  plural  does  not  end  in 
s,  ^s)  are  both  added.* 

Examples. — Boy's,  boys%  men's. 

Remark. — To  avoid  an  unpleasant  succession  of  hissing  sounds,  the  8 
in  the  possessive  singular  is  sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  conscience'  sake, 
goodness*  sake,  Achilles'  sword,  Archimedes  screw  (the  s  in  the  words 
following  the  possessive  here  has  its  influence).  In  prose  this  omission 
of  the  s  should  seldom  occur.  The  weight  of  usage  inclines  to  the  s  in 
such  names  as  Miss  Rounds s,  Mrs.  HemanSs,  King  James's,  witness's, 
prince's.  Without  the  s  there  would  be  no  distinction,  in  spoken  lan- 
guage, between  Miss  Round's  and  Miss  Rounds',  Mrs.  Eeman's  and 
Mrs.  Heman^, 

Remark. — Pronounce  the  Cs)  as  a  separate  syllable  (—  es),  when  the 
sound  of  8  will  not  unite  with  the  last  sound  of  the  nominative. 

Remark. — ^When  the  singular  and  the  plural  are  alike  in  the  nomi- 
native, some  place  the  apostrophe  after  the  s  in  the  plural  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  possessive  singular  ;  as,  singular,  sheep's  ;  plural,  sheeps\ 

"DirecMon.— Study  tJie  Rule  and  the  Remarks  given  above,  and  then 
vrrite  the  possessive  singular  and  the  possessive  plural  of 
each  of  th£  following  nouns  : — 

Actor,  elephant,  farmer,  king,  lion,  genius,  horse,  princess,  buffalo, 
hero,  mosquito,  negro,  volcano,  junto,  tyro,  cuckoo,  ally,  attorney, 
fairy,  lady,  monkey,  calf,  elf,  thief,  wife,  wolf,  chief,  dwarf,  waif, 
child,  goose,  mouse,  ox,  woman,  beau,  seraph,  fish,  deer,  sheep, 
swine. 

Compound  names  and  groups  of  words  that  may  be  treated 
as  compound  names  add  the  possessive  sign  to  the  last  word; 
as,  a  man-of-war^ s  rigging,  the  queen  of  England's  palace,  f 
Frederick  the  Greafs  verses. 

*  In  Anglo  Saxon,  es  was  a  genitive  (possessive)  ending  of  the  singular  ;  as,  smith, 
genitive,  smithes.  In  old  English,  es  and  is  were  both  used.  In  modem  English  the 
vowel  is  dropped,  and  (')  stands  in  its  place.  The  use  of  the  apostrophe  has  been 
extended  to  distinguish  the  possessive  from  other  forms  of  the  plural. 

t  In  parsing  the  words  qveen  and  England  separately,  the  Cs)  must  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  qtieen  ;  but  the  whole  phrase  queen  of  England  may  be  treated  as  one  noun 
in  the  possessive  case. 
14 


2IO  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Remark. — The  possessive  plural  of  such  terms  is  not  used. 

The  preposition  o/with  the  objective  is  often  used  instead 
of  the  possessive  case  form — David's  Psalms  =  Psalms  of 
David  (of  ='s). 

Remark. — To  denote  the  source  from  which  a  thing  proceeds,  or  the 
idea  of  belonging  to,  of  is  used  more  frequently  than  ('«). 

The  possessive  sign  (s)  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  names  of  persons, 
animals,  and  things  personified.  We  do  not  say  the  tree^s  leaves,  but 
the  leaves  of  the  tree. 

The  possessive  sign,  however,  is  often  added  to  names  of  things  which 
we  frequently  hear  personified,  or  which  we  wish  to  dignify,  and  to 
names  of  periods  of  time  ;  as,  the  earth's  surface,  fortune^s  smile, 
eternity's  stillness,  a  year's  interest,  a  day's  work. 

By  the  use  of  of  such  expressions  as  witness's  statement,  mothers-dri' 
law's  faults  may  be  avoided. 

Direction. — Study  carefully  the  principles  and  remarks  given  above, 
and  then  make  each  of  the  following  terms  indicate  possession,  using 
either  the  possessive  sign  or  the  preposition  of,  as  may  seem  most  appro- 
priate, and  join  an  appropriate  name  denoting  the  thing  possessed  : — 

Father-in-law,  William  the  Conqueror,  king  of  Great  Britain,  aid- 
de-eamp,  Henry  the  Eighth,  attorney- at-law,  somebody  else,*  Jeffer- 
son, enemy,  hero,  eagle,  elephant,  gunpowder,  book,  house,  chair, 
torrent,  sun,  ocean,  mountain,  summer,  year,  day,  hour,  princess. 
Socrates. 


LEii©ii  lai. 

CONSTRUCTION   OF   POSSESSIVE   FORMS. 

As  the  possessive  is  the  only  case  of  nouns  that  has  a  dis- 
tinctive form,  or  inflection,  it  is  only  with  this  case  that 
mistakes  can  occur  in  construction. 

*  In  such  expressions  as  everybody  else''s  business,  the  possessive  sign  is  removed 
from  the  noim  and  attached  to  the  adjective.  The  possessive  sign  should  generally 
be  placed  immediately  before  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 


Construction  of  Possessive  Forms,  2 1 1 

Caution, — When  several  possessive  nouns  modify  the  saQie 
word  and  imply  common  possession,  the  possessive  sign  is 
added  to  the  last  only.  If  they  modify  different  words,  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  the  sign  is  added  to  each. 

Explanation. —  William  and  Henry's  boat,  William's  and  Henry's 
boat.  In  the  first  example,  William  and  Henry  are  represented  as 
jointly  owning  a  boat ;  in  the  second,  each  is  represented  as  owning  a 
separate  hoaX—hoat  is  understood  after  William's, 

Remark. — When  the  different  possessors  are  thought  of  as  separate 
or  opposed,  the  sign  may  be  repeated,  although  joint  possession  is 
implied  ;  as,  He  was  \A?,  father' s,  mother's,  and  sister's  favorite.  He  was 
the  king's,  as  well  as  the  people's,  favorite. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors,  and  give  your  reasons : — 
1.  The  Bank  of  England  was  established  in  William's  and  Mary's 
reign.  2.  Messrs.  Leggett's,  Stacy's,  Green's,  &  Co.'s  business  pros- 
pers. 3.  This  was  James's,  Charles's,  and  Robert's  estate.  4.  America 
was  discovered  during  Ferdinand's  and  Isabella's  reign.  5.  We  were 
comparing  Caesar  and  Napoleon's  victones.  6.  This  was  the  sage  and 
the  poet's  theme. 

Explanation. — If  an  article  precedes  the  possessive,  the  sign  is  re- 
peated. 

7.  It  was  the  king,  not  the  people's,  choice.  8.  They  are  Thomas,  as 
well  as  James's,  books. 

Caution,— Whan  a  possessive  noun  is  followed  by  an  ex- 
planatory word,  the  possessive  sign  is  added  to  the  explana- 
tory word  only.  But,  if  the  explanatory  word  has  several 
modifiers,  or,  if  there  are  more  explanatory  words,  than  one, 
the  principal  word  only  takes  the  sign. 

Remark. — When  a  common  noun  is  explanatory  of  a  proper  noun, 
and  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  is  omitted,  the  possessive  sign  may 
be  added  to  either  the  modifying  or  the  principal  word  ;  as,  We  stopped 
at  Tiffany,  the  jeweler's,  or,  We  stopped  at  Tiffany's,  the  jeweler.    (If 


2 1 2  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  is  given,  the  noun  immediately  before 
it  takes  the  sign.) 

Direction. —  Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  This  is  Tennyson's,  the  poet's,  home.  2.  I  took  tea  at  Brown's, 
my  old  friend  and  schoolmate's.  3.  This  belongs  to  Victoria's,  queen 
of  England's,  dominion.  4.  This  province  is  Victoria's,  queen  of  Eng- 
land's. 5.  That  language  is  Homer's,  the  greatest  poet  of  antiquity's. 
6.  This  was  Franklin's  motto,  the  distinguished  philosopher's  and 
statesman's.     7.  Wolsey's,  the  cardinal's,  career  ended  in  disgrace. 

Direction. — Tell  which  of  the  sentences,  above,  may  he  improved  by 
using  other  forms  to  denote  possession.    (See  the  following  Caution.) 

Caution, — The  relation  of  possession  may  be  expressed  not 
only  by  ('«)  and  o/,  but  by  the  use  of  such  phrases  as  belong- 
ing to,  property  of,  etc.  In  constructing  sentences  be  careful 
to  secure  smoothness  and  clearness  by  taking  advantage  of 
these  different  forms. 
Direction. — Improve  the  following  sentences  ;— 

1.  This  is  my  wife's  father's  opinion. 

Correction. — This  is  the  opinion  of  my  icife's  father,  or  held  by  my 
wife's  father. 

2.  This  is  my  wife's  father's  farm.  3.  France's  and  England's  in- 
terests differ  widely.  4.  Frederick  the  Great  was  the  son  of  the  daughter 
of  George  I.,  of  England.  5.  My  brother's  wife's  sister's  drawings 
have  been  much  admired,  6.  The  drawings  of  the  sister  of  the  wife  of 
my  brother  have  been  much  admired. 

0/is  not  always  equivalent  to  the  (\<?). 

Explanation. — The  presidenfs  reception  means  the  reception  given 
by  the  president  ;  but  the  reception  of  the  president  means  the  reception 
given  to  the  president. 

Direction. — Construct  sentences  illustrating  the  meaning  of  the  follow- 
ing expressions : — 

A  mother's  love,  the  love  of  a  mother  ;  a  father's  care,  the  care  of  a 
father  ;  my  friend's  picture,  a  picture  of  my  friend. 


Number  and  Case  Forms. 


213 


Caution.— Often  ambiguity  may  be  prevented  by  changing 
the  assumed  subject  of  a  participle  from  a  nominative  or  an 
objective  to  a  possessive. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors : — 

1.  The  writer  being  a  scholar  is  not  doubted. 

Correction. — This  is  ambiguous,  as  it  may  mean  either  that  the 
writer  is  not  doubted,  because  he  is  a  scholar,  or  that  the  writer's 
scholarship  is  not  doubted.  It  should  be,  27ie  writer's  being  a  sclwlar 
is  not  doubted,  or  That  the  writer  is  a  scholar  is  not  doubted. 

2.  I  have  no  doubt  of  the  writer  being  a  scholar.  3.  No  one  ever 
heard  of  that  man  running  for  oflBce.  4.  Brown  being  a  politician  pre- 
vented his  election.  5.  I  do  not  doubt  him  being  sincere.  6.  Grouchy 
being  behind'  time  decided  the  fate  of  Waterloo. 


LESSON  4i4. 

NUMBER  AND  CASE   FORMS. 
Declension. 

DEFINITION.— 2>ecie»isio»i  is  the  arrangement  of  the  cases 
of  nouns  and  prononns  in  the  two  numbers. 

Direction.— Z/eam-  ths  following  declensions : — 
Declension  of  Nouns. 


LADY. 

BOY. 

MAN. 

Bingula/r,     Plural. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Sing.      Plural. 

lilom.  lady,        ladies, 

boy,        boys. 

man,        men. 

Pos.    lady's,      ladies', 

boy's,      boys'. 

man's,      men's, 

Obj,     lady ;       ladies. 

boy  ;      boys. 

man ;       men. 

214 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


Declension  of  Pronouns. 

Peesonal  Peonouns. 

FmST  PEESON. 

SECOND  PEESON— 

SECOND 

PEESON — 

common  form. 

old  form. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular.    Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Norn.  I, 

we. 

you,          you, 

thou, 

ye  or  you, 

Po8.    my  or 

•    our  or 

your  or     your  or 

thy  <?r 

your  or 

mine,= 

*   ours. 

yours,       yours. 

thine. 

yours. 

Olg.     me  ; 

us. 

you ;         you. 

thee ; 

you. 

THIED  PEESON— ifaS. 

THTED  PEESON— i^e?71. 

THIED  PEESON— iVeW^. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular.    Plural. 

Singula/r. 

Plural. 

Nom.  he, 

they, 

she,            they. 

it, 

they, 

Po8.    his, 

their  or 

her  or        their  or 

its, 

their  or 

theirs. 

hers,           theirs. 

theirs, 

Oi^.     him ; 

them. 

her ;          them. 

it; 

them. 

Compound   Personal   Pronouns. 

Singular. 

Plural.  ' 

Singular.    Plural. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.  and 

Nom.  and 

Nom.  and     Nam.  and 

Nom.  and 

Nom.  and 

Obj.  0^. 

myself  or ) 

,_e      t  ourselves, 
ourself ;    J 


Obj.  Oli).  Obj.  Of&. 

thyself  or  i  ,  himself  ;  )  , , 

,,    I  yourselves.     ,        ,,     f  them- 
yourself  ;  )  ''                     herself  ;  >•      . 

itself  ;      ) 


Remark. — The  possessive  of  these  pronouns  is  wanting. 


*  The  forms  mine,  ours,  yours,  thine.,  Tiers,  and  tJieirs  are  used  only  when  the  name 
of  the  thing  possessed  is  omitted  ;  as,  Yours  is  old,  mine  is  new  =  Your  book  is  old, 
etc.  Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound; 
as,  thine  enemy,  mine  h07un\ 

The  expression  a  friend  of  mine  presents  a  peculiar  construction.  The  explanation 
generally  given  is,  that  of  is  partitive,  and  the  expression  equivalent  to  one  friend  of 
my  friends.  And  it  is  claimed  that  this  construction  can  be  used  only  when  more 
than  one  thing  is  possessed.  But  such  expressions  as  this  h^art  of  mine,  that  temper 
of  yours  are  good,  idiomatic  English.  This  sweet  wee  wife  of  mine.— Burns.  This 
naughty  world  of  ours.— Byron.  This  moral  life  of  mine.—Sher.  Knowles.  Dim  are 
those  heads  of  theirs.— Carlyle.  Some  suggest  that  the  word  possessing  or  owning  is 
understood  after  these  possessives  ;  as,  This  temper  of  yours  (your  possessing) ; 
others  say  that  of  simply  marks  identity  ;  as  in  city  of{=  viz.)  New  York  (see  Lesson 
34).    They  would  make  the  expression=  This  temper,  your  temper. 


Number  and  Case  Forms,  215 

Ouradf-dxA  we  are  used  by  rulers,  editors,  and  others  to  hide  their 
individuality,  and  give  authority  to  what  they  say. 

Relative    Pronouns. 

&m,g,  aTid  Plu.  Sing,  and  Plu.  Sing,  and  Plu.  Sing,  and  Plu. 
Nom.  who,                 which,                     that,  what, 

Pos.    whose,  whose,  ,  , 

013.     whom.  which.  that.  what. 

Remark. — Instead  of  using  Moho^  as  the  possessive  of  which,  some 
prefer  the  phrase  of  which. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  who,  which,  and  what  are  de- 
clined like  the  relatives  who,  which,  and  what. 

Compound   Relative  Pronouns. 

Singular  and  Plural.  Singular  and  Plural. 
Nom.  whoever,  whosoever, 

Pos.    whosever,  whosesoever, 

Obj.     whomever.  whomsoever. 

Whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever  do  not 
change  their  form. 

Adjective  Pronouns. 

This  and  that  with  their  plurals,  these  and  those,  have  no 
possessive  form,  and  are  alike  in  the  nominative  and  the 
objective.  One  and  other  are  declined  like  nouns;  and 
another,  declined  like  other  in  the  singular,  has  no  plural. 
Each,  either,  and  neither  are  always  singular ;  *  loth  is  al- 

*  Grammarians  have  taught  that  each  other,  dther,  and  neither  should  always  refer 
to  two  things,  and  one  another  to  more  than  two  ;  but  good  writers  do  not  regard  this 
restriction. 


2i6  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

ways  plural ;  and  all,  any,  former,  latter,  none,  same,  some, 
and  such  are  either  singular  or  plural. 

Descriptive  adjectives  used  as  nouns  are  plural,  and  are 
not  declined.  Such  expressions  as  "  the  wretched^ s  only 
plea"  and  *^the  mc^e^'5  den"  are  exceptional. 


LESiOH  \%%. 

CASE    FORMS— PRONOUNS. 

The  pronouns  /,  thou,  he,  she,  and  who  are  the  only 
words  in  the  language  that  have  each  three  different  case 
forms. 

Direction. — Study  tJie  Declensions,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
Cur's,  your's,  hi's,  her's,  it's,  their's,  youm,  hisn,  hem,  theirn. 

Construction  of  Case  Forms— Pronouns. 

Caution, — J,  we,  thou,  ye,  he,  she,  they,  and  who  are 
nominative  forms,  and  must  not  be  used  in  the  objective 
case.  Me^  us,  thee,  him^  her,*  them,  and  whom  are  ob- 
jective forms,  and  must  not  be  used  in  the  nominative  case. 

Remark. — The  eight  nominative  forms  and  the  seven  objective  forms 
here  given  are  the  only  distinctive  nominative  and  objective  forms  in 
the  language.  All  the  rules  of  syntax  given  in  the  grammars  to  guide 
in  the  use  of  the  nominative  and  the  objective  case  apply,  practically, 
only  to  these  fifteen  words. 

Direction. — Study  carefully  the  definitions  and  principles  given 
under  the  head  of  case,  Lesson  119,  and  then  correct  these  errors,  giving 
you/r  reasons  in  every  instance  : — 

*  Her  is  also  a  posseesive. 


Case  Forms — Pronouns.  217 

1.  It  is  not  me  *  you  are  in  love  with.  2.  She  was  neither  better  bred 
nor  wiser  than  you  or  me.*  3.  Who  *  servest  thou  under  ?  4.  It 
was  not  them,  it  was  her.  5.  Its  being  me  should  make  no  difference. 
6.  Him  and  me  are  of  the  same  age.  7.  Them  that  study  grammar 
talk  no  better  than  me.  8.  I  am  not  so  old  as  her  ;  she  is  older  than 
me  by  ten  years.  9.  He  was  angry,  and  me  too.  10.  Who  will  go  ? 
Me.  11.  It  isn't  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the  land. 
12.  Not  one  in  a  thousand  could  have  done  it  as  well  as  him.  13.  Him 
being  a  stranger,  they  easily  misled  him.  14.  Oh,  happy  us  !  sur- 
rounded thus  with  blessings.  15.  It  was  Joseph,  him  whom  Pharaoh 
promoted.  16.  I  referred  to  my  old  friend,  he  of  whom  I  so  often 
speak.  17.  You  have  seen  Cassio  and  she  together.  18.  Between 
you  and  I,  I  believe  that  he  is  losing  his  mind.  19.  Who  should  I 
meet  the  other  day  but  my  old  friend  ?  20.  Who  did  he  refer  to,  he  or 
I  ?  21.  Who  did  he  choose  ?  Did  he  choose  you  and  I  ?  22.  He  that 
is  idle  and  mischievous  reprove.  23.  We  will  refer  it  to  whoever  you 
may  choose.  24.  Whosoever  the  court  favors  is  safe.  25.  They  that 
are  diligent  I  wiU  reward.  26.  Scotland  and  thee  did  in  each  other 
live.  27.  My  hour  is  come,  but  not  to  render  up  my  soul  to  such  as 
thee.  28.  I  knew  that  it  was  him.  29.  I  knew  it  to  be  he.  30.  Who 
did  you  suppose  it  to  be  ?  31.  Whom  did  you  suppose  it  was  ?  32.  I 
took  that  tall  man  to  be  he.     33.  I  thought  that  tall  man  was  him. 

*  Dr.  Latham  defends  It  is  me,  but  condemns  It  is  him  and  It  is  her.  Dean  Alford 
regards  as  correct  the  forms  condemned  by  Latham,  and  asserts  that  thee  and  me  are 
correct  in  "  The  nations  not  so  blest  as  thee"  "  Such  weak  minister  as  me  may  the  op- 
pressor bruise."  Prof.  Bain  justifies  If  I  were  him,  It  was  her.  He  is  better  than  me, 
and  even  defends  the  use  of  who  as  an  objective  form  by  quoting  from  Shakespeare, 
"  Who  servest  thou  under  ?  "  and  from  Steele,  **  Who  should  I  meet  ?  " 

They  justify  such  expressions  as  It  is  m£  from  the  analogy  of  the  French  c'est  moi, 
and  on  the  ground  that  they  are  "more  frequently  heard  than  the  prescribed  form." 
But  such  analogy  would  justify  It  are  them  ice  sont  evx) ;  and,  if  the  argument  from 
the  speech  of  the  uneducated  is  to  have  weight,  we  have  good  authority  for  '■'■Her 
ain't  a  calling  we  ;  us  don't  belong  to  she."  A  course  of  reading  will  satisfy  any  one 
that  the  best  writers  and  speakers  in  England  are  not  in  the  habit  of  using  such  ex- 
pressions as  It  is  m£,  and  that  they  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  unknown  in  American 
literature.  No  one  has  so  freed  himself  from  the  influence  of  early  associations  that 
in  a  careless  moment  some  vicious  colloquialism  may  not  creep  into  his  discourse. 
A  violation  of  every  principle  of  grammar  may  be  defended,  if  such  inadvertencies 
are  to  be  erected  into  authority.  To  whatever  is  the  prevailing,  the  habitual,  usage  of 
a  majority  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  the  grammarian  bows  without  question  ; 
but  not  to  the  accidental  slips  of  even  the  greatest,  or  to  the  common  usage  of  the  un- 
reflecting and  the  uncultivated. 


2i8  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

LESSON  Its. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASE    FORMS. 
Miscellaneous— Review. 
Direction. — Correct  these  errors,  and  give  your  reasons : — 
1.  Who  was  Joseph's  and  Benjamin's  mother  ?    2.  It  did  not  occur 
during  Washington,  Jefferson,  or  Adams's  administration.    3.  I  con- 
sulted Webster,  Worcester,  and  Walker's  dictionary.     4.   This  state 
was  south  of  Mason's  and  Dixon's  line.   5.  These  are  neither  George  nor 
Fanny's  books.      6.  Howard's,  the  philanthropist's,  life  was  a  noble 
one.     7.  It  is  Othello's   pleasure,   our  noble  and  valiant  general's. 
8.  He  visited  his  sons-in-law's  homes. 

Explanation. — If  the  possessive  plural  of  such  nouns  were  used,  this 
would  be- correct ;  but  it  is  better  to  avoid  these  awkward  forms. 

9.  A  valuable  horse  of  my  friend  William's  father's  was  killed. 
10.  For  Herodias's  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife.  11.  For  the  queen's 
sake,  his  sister's.  12.  Peter's,  John's,  and  Andrew's  occupation  was 
that  of  fishermen.  13.  He  spoke  of  you  studying  Latin.  14.  It 
being  difficult  did  not  deter  him.  15.  What  need  is  there  of  the  man 
swearing  ?  16.  I  am  opposed  to  the  gentleman  speaking  again. 
17.  He  thought  it  was  us.  18.  We  shall  shortly  see  which  is  the  fittest 
object  of  scorn,  you  or  me.  19.  1  shaU  not  learn  my  duty  from  such  as 
thee.  20.  A  lady  entered,  whom  I  afterwards  found  was  Miss  B.  21.  A 
lady  entered,  who  I  afterwards  found  to  be  Miss  B.  22.  Ask  some- 
body's else  opinion.  23.  Let  him  be  whom  he  may.  24.  I  am  sure  it 
could  not  have  been  them.  25.  I  understood  it  to  be  they.  26.  It  is 
not  him  whom  you  thought  it  was.  27.  Let  you  and  I  try  it.  28.  All 
enjoyed  themselves,  us  excepted.  29.  Us  boys  enjoy  the  holidays. 
30.  It  was  Virgil,  him  who  wrote  the  -^neid. 


General  Review, 


219 


GENERAL     REVIEW. 

To  the  Teacher.— These  schemes  and  questions  under  the  head  of  General  Review 
are  especially  designed  to  aid  in  securing  an  outline  of  technical  grammar. 

The  questions  given  below  may  be  made  to  call  for  minute  details  or  only  for  out- 
lines.   In  some  cases  a  single  question  may  suffice  for  a  whole  lesson. 

Scheme  for  the  Noun. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 
'  Subject  (4,  8). 

Object  Complement  (28). 

Attribute  Complement  (29,  30). 

Objective  Complement  (31). 

Adjective  Modifier  (33). 

Adverb  Modifier  (35). 

Principal  word  in  Prep.  Phrase  (17). 
^  Independent  (44). 


NOUN. 


Uses 


Classes. 


Modifications. 


Common  (85). 

(Abstract  and  Collective.) 

Proper  (85). 

„    .  (  Singular  (112-116). 

Number,      ]  pi^al  (112-116). 

Masculine  (117,  118). 
Gender.       ■{  Feminine  (117,  118). 
Neuter  (11 7,  lis). 

First  (119). 
Person.       i  Second  (119). 
Third  (no). 

C  Nominative  (119). 
Case.  -j  Possessive  (il9,  122,  123). 

(  Objective  (119). 

Questions    on    the    Noun. 

1.  Define  the  noun  and  its  classes. — Lesson  85. 

2.  Name  and  define  the  modifications  of  the  noun. — Less.  112,  117, 
119. 

3.  Name  and  define  the  several  numbers,  genders,  persons,  and  cases. 
—Less.  112,  117,  119. 

4.  Give  and  illustrate  the  several  ways  of  forming  the  plural. — ^Less. 
112,  113,  114. 


220  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

5.  Give  and  illustrate  the  several  ways  of  distinguishing  the  genders. 
—Less.  117. 

6.  How  is  the  possessive  case  formed  ? — Less.  122. 

7.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  use  of  the  possess- 
ive forms. — Less.  123. 

Scheme  for  the  Pronoun. 
Uses. — Same  as  those  of  the  Noun. 

{Personal  (85,  86,  87). 
Eelative  (85,  86,  87). 
Interrogative  (85). 
Adjective  (85, 87). 

Modifications. — Same  as  those  of  the  Noun  (il2,  117, 

118,  119,  124,  125,  142). 

Questions    on    the    Pronoun. 

1.  Define  the  pronoun  and  its  classes,  and  give  the  lists. — Less.  85. 

2.  Decline  the  several  pronouns. — Less.  124. 

3.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  th^ 
different  pronouns. — Less.  86,  87. 

4.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  the 
number  forms,  the  gender  forms,  and  the  case  focms. — Less.  142,  118, 
125. 


PRONOUN.   ^ 


COMPARISON. 

Introductory  Hints. — That  apple  is  sweet,  that  other  is  sweeter,  hut 
this  one  is  the  sweetest.  The  adjective  sweet,  expressing  a  quality  of  the 
three  apples,  is,  as  you  see,  inflected  by  adding  er  and  est. 

Adjectives,  then,  have  one  modification,  and  this  is  marked  hj  form, 
or  inflection.  This  modification  is  called  Comparison,  because  it  is 
used  when  things  are  compared  with  one  another  in  respect  to  some 
quality  common  to  them  all,  but  possessed  by  them  in  different  degrees. 
The  form  of  the  adjective  which  expresses  the  simple  quality,  as  sweety 


Comparison.  221 


is  of  the  Positive  Degree ;  that  which  expresses  the  quality  in  a  greater 
or  a  less  degree,  as  sweeter,  less  sweet,  is  of  the  Comparative  Degree  ; 
and  that  which  expresses  the  quality  in  the  greatest  or  the  least  degree, 
as  sweetest,  least  sweet,  is  of  the  Superlative  Degree. 

But  even  the  positive  implies  a  comparison  ;  we  should  not  say,  This 
apple  is  sweet,  unless  this  particular  fruit  had  more  of  the  quality  than 
ordinary  apples  possess. 

Notice,  too,  that  the  adjective  in  the  comparative  and  superlative 
degrees  always  expresses  the  quality  relatively.  When  we  say,  This 
apple  is  sweeter  than  that,  or,  This  apple  is  the  sweetest  of  the  three,  we 
do  not  mean  that  any  of  the  apples  is  really  or  in  the  highest  degree 
sweet ;  but  only  that  one  apple  is  sweeter  than  the  other,  or  the  sweetest 
of  those  compared. 

The  several  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective  may  be 
increased  or  diminished  by  adverbs  modifying  the  adjective — we  can 
say  very,  exceedingly,  rather,  or  somewhat  sweet ;  far,  still,  or  much 
sweeter  ;  hy  far  or  much  the  sweetest. 

Some  adverbs,  as  well  as  adjectives,  are  compared. 

Adjectives  have  one  modification  ;  viz..  Comparison,'^ 

DEFINITIONS. 

Comparison  is  a  modification  of  Ihe  adjective  (or  the  adverb)  to 
express  the  relative  degree  of  the  quality  t  ia  the  things  compared. 

The  Positive  Degree  expresses  the  simple  quality. 

The  Comparative  Degrree  expresses  a  greater  or  a  less  degree 
of  the  quality. 

The  Superlative  Degree  expresses  the  greatest  or  the  least 
degree  of  the  quality. 

RULE.— Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  er  to  the 
positive  to  form  the  comparative,  and  est  to  the  positive  to  form 
the  superlative. 


*  Two  adjectives,  this  and  that,  have  iinnib3r  iorm^—this,  these ;  that,  those.    In 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin,  adjectives  have  forms  lo  indicate  gender,  number,  and  case. 
\  Different  degrees  of  quantity,  also,  may  tjometimes  be  expressed  by  comparison. 


222  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


RULES  FOR  SPELLING. 

RULE  I.— Final  e  is  dropped  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a 
Yowel  ;  as,  jine,  finer  ;  love,  loving. 

Exceptions. — The  e  is  retained  (1)  after  c  and  g,  when  the  snfBx 
begins  with  a  ox  o  \  as,  'peaceable^  changeable  ;  (2)  after  o  ;  as,  lioeing ; 
and  (3)  when  it  is  needed  to  preserve  the  identity  of  the  word  ;  as, 
singeing,  dyeing. 

RULE  11. — Final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant  changes  to  *  when 
a  suffix  is  added  not  beginning  with  i;  as,  witty,  wittier;  dry,  dried. 

RULE  III.— Those  monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the  last 
syllable  that  end  in  a  single  consonant  following  a  single  vowel 
double  this  consonant  before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel  j  as, 

hot,  Jwtter  ;  tegin,  beginning. 

Exceptions. — X,  k,  and  n  are  never  doubled,  and  gas  has  gases  in 
the  plural. 

Adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  generally  com- 
pared by  prefixing  more  and  most.  This  method  is  often 
used  with  adjectives  of  two  syllables  and  sometimes  w'th 
those  of  one. 

Remark.— Jfor^  beautiful,  most  beautifid,  etc.,  can  hardly  be  called 
degree  forms  of  the  adjective.  The  adverbs  more  and  most  have  the 
degree  forms,  and  in  parsing  they  may  be  regarded  as  separate  words. 
The  adjective,  however,  is  varied  in  sense  the  same  as  when  the  in- 
flections er  and  est  are  added. 

Degrees  of  diminution  are  expressed  by  prefixing  less  and 
least ;  as,  valuable,  less  valuable,  least  valuable. 

Most  definitive  and  many  descriptive  adjectives  cannot  be 
compared,  as  their  meaning  will  not  admit  of  different 
degrees. 


Comparison,  223 


Direction. — From  this  list  of  adjectives  select  those  thai  cannot  be  com- 
pared, and  compare  those  thai  remain : — 

Observe  the  Rules  for  Spelling  given  above. 

Wooden,  English,  unwelcome,  physical,  one,  that,  common,  hand- 
some, happy,  able,  polite,  hot,  sweet,  vertical,  two-wheeled,  infinite, 
witty,  humble,  any,  thin,  intemperate,  undeviating,  nimble,  holy, 
lunar,  superior. 

Of  the  two  forms  of  comparison,  that  which  is  more 
easily  pronounced  and  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  is  to  be 
preferred. 

Direction. — Correct  thefoUowirig  : — 

Famousest,  virtuousest,  eloquenter,  comfortabler,  amusingest. 

Some  adverbs  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est,  and 
some  by  prefixing  more  and  most. 

Direction. — Compare  the  following  : — 

Early,  easily,  fast,  firmly,  foolishly,  late,  long,  often,  soon,  wisely. 

Some  adjectives  and  adverbs  are  irregular  in  their  com- 
parison. 

Direction. — Lea>rn  to  compare  the  foUomng  adjectives  and  adverbs : — 
Adjectives  Irregularly  Compared. 


Pos. 

Comp, 

Superlative, 

Pos, 

Comp, 

Superlative, 

(Aft),* 

after. 

aftmost  or 
aftermost. 

Far, 

farther. 

( farthest  or 
( farthermost. 

Bad,) 

EvU,  [ 

worse, 

worst. 

Fore, 

former, 

j  foremost  or 
(first. 

111,     ) 

(Forth), 

further, 

furthest  <?r 
furthermost. 

*  The  words  enclosed  in  curves  are  adverbs — the  adjectives  following  having  no 
positive  form. 


224  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


P08. 

Good, 
Hind, 

(In), 
Late, 

Little,* 

Many  or  i 
Much,     \ 


Pos. 
Badly, ) 
II],       f 
Far, 
Forth, 


Camp. 
better. 


Superlative. 
best. 
( hindmost  or 
*^^°^^^'     Ihindermost. 
inmost  or 
innermost. 
( later  or    ( latest  or 


inner,      \  , 
( 11 


\  latter, 
( less  or 
1  lesser. 


last, 
least. 


Under,    

(Up),       upper,      -j 
Top,        

Adverbs  Irregularly  Compared. 


Pos.        Gomp.         Superlative. 

__  (  nearest  or 

Near,      nearer,  j  ^^^^^ 

( older  or  {.  oldest  or 

^^^'      I  elder,  \  eldest. 

f  outmost  or 

I  outer  or  I  outermost ; 


(Out), 


"i  utter, 


Comp. 
worse. 


ive. 


worst. 


farther,       farthest, 
further.      furthest. 


Po8.  Comp. 

Little,  less. 

Much,  more, 

Well,  better. 


utmost  or 

uttermost. 

undermost. 

upmost  or 

uppermost. 

topmost. 


Superlative. 
least, 
most, 
best. 


To  the  Teacher.— We  give,  below,  a  model  for  writing  the  parsing  of  adjectives, 
A  siraDar  form  may  be  used  for  adverbs. 

Exercises  for  the  parsing  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  may  be  selected  from  Lessons 
12,  14,  29,  30,  31,  44,  46,  47,  48,  60,  63,  64,  65. 

Model  for  Written  Parsing.— All  the  dewy  glodes  are  Still, 


CLASSIFICATION. 


Adjectives. 

All 
the 
dewy 
still 


Kind. 
Bet. 

Des. 


MODIFICATION. 


Deg.  of  Comp. 


Pos. 


Modifier  of  glades. 

it  44  44 

Completes  are  and  modifies  glades. 


*  For  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  of  little,  in  the  sense  of  small  in  size, 
trnaUer  and  smallest  are  substituted  ;  as,  litUe  boy,  smaller  boy,  smallest  boy. 


Construction  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives,  225 

LISSOM  lis. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    COMPARATIVES  AND 
SUPERLATIVES. 

Caution.— In  stating  a  comparison  avoid  comparing  a 
thing  with  itself.* 

Remark. — The  comparative  degree  refers  to  two  things  (or  sets  of 
things)  as  distinct  from  each  other,  and  implies  that  one  has  more  of 
the  quality  than  the  other.  The  comparative  degree  is  generally  fol- 
lowed by  than.\ 

Direction. — Stttdy  the  Caution  cmd  the  Remwrk,  cmd  correct  these 

errors : — 

1.  London  is  larger  than  any  city  in  Europe. 

Correction.— The  second  term  of  comparison,  any  city  in  Europe, 
includes  London,  and  so  London  is  represented  as  being  larger  than 
itself.  It  should  be,  London  is  larger  than  any  other  city  in  Europe,  or, 
London  is  the  largest  city  in  Europe. 

2.  China  has  a  greater  population  than  any  nation  on  the  globe. 
3.  I  like  this  book  better  than  any  book  I  have  seen.  4.  There  is  no 
metal  so  useful  as  iron. 

(A  comparison  is  here  stated,  although  no  degree  form  is  employed.) 

5.  All  the  metals  are  less  useful  than  iron.  6.  Time  ought,  above 
all  kinds  of  property,  to  be  free  from  invasion. 

Caution,— In  using  the  superlative  degree  be  careful  to 
make  the  latter  term  of  the  comparison,  or  the  term  intro- 
duced by  of,  include  the  former. 

Remark. — The  superlative  degree  refers  to  one  thing  (or  set  of  things) 

*  A  thing  may,  of  course,  be  compared  with  itself  as  existing  under  different  con- 
ditions ;  as.  The  star  is  brighter  to-night,  The  grass  is  greener  to-day. 

t  The  comparative  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  two  things  only,  but  it  may 
be  used  to  compare  one  thing  with  a  number  of  things  taken  separately  or  together ; 
as,  He  is  no  better  than  other  men.,  It  contains  more  than  all  the  others  corrMmd. 
15 


226  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

as  belonging  to  a  group  or  class,  and  as  having  more  of  the  quality  than 
any  of  the  rest.     The  superlative  is  generally  followed  by  o/.* 

'D\xec\ioxi.— Study  the  Caution  and  the  Remark,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  all  the  other  Hebrew  kings. 
Correction.— 0/(=  lelonging  to)  represents  Solomon  as  belonging  to 

a  group  of  kings,  and  other  excludes  him  from  this  group — a  contradic- 
tion in  terms.  It  should  be,  Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  Hebrew  kings, 
or,  Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  other  Hebrew  king. 

2.  Of  all  the  other  books  I  have  examined,  this  is  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. 3.  Profane  swearing  is,  of  all  other  vices,  the  most  inexcusable. 
4.  He  was  the  most  active  of  all  his  companions. 

(He  was  not  one  of  his  own  companions.) 

5.  This  was  the  most  satisfactory  of  any  preceding  effort. 

Caution,— ANoidi  double  comparatives  and  double  super- 
latives, and  the  comparison  of  adjectives  whose  meaning  will 
not  admit  of  different  degrees,  f 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors : — 

1.  A  more  healthier  location  cannot  be  found.  2.  He  took  the  long- 
est, but  the  most  pleasantest,  route.  3.  Draw  that  line  more  perpen- 
dicular. 

*  The  superlative  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  more  than  two  things,  but  it  is 
sometimes  used  to  compare  two;  as,  Which  is  the  best  of  the  two  f  Many  grammarians 
claim  that  the  comparative  should  always  be  used  in  such  constructions ;  but  the 
superlative  can  hardly  be  condemned,  for  (1)  it  is  supported  by  good  usage,  (2)  it  is 
sometimes  less  stiff  and  formal  than  the  comparative,  and  (3)  the  precedes  i  he  adjec- 
tive, of  follows  it,  and  the  latter  term  of  the  comparison  includes  the  former  -the 
construction  peculiar  to  the  superlative. 

t  Double  comparatives  and  double  superlatives  were  formerly  used  by  good  writers 
for  the  sake  of  emphasis  ;  as,  Our  worser  thoughts  Heaven  mend  \— Shakespeare. 
The  most  straitest  sect.— Bible. 

Many  words  which  grammarians  have  considered  incapable  of  comparison  are  used 
In  a  sense  short  of  their  literal  meaning,  and  are  compared  by  good  writers  ;  as.  My 
chiefest  entertainment.— /iS^^tcfare.  The  chiefest  prize.— Byron.  Divinest  Melancholy. 
—MUton.  ExtremestheW.—  Whittier.  Most  perfect  harmony. —Longfellow.  Less  per- 
fect imitations.— Macaulay.    These  exceptional  forms  should  not  be  encouraged. 


Construction  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives.  227 

Correction. — Draw  that  line  perpendicular,  or  more  nearly  perpen- 
dicular. 

4.  The  opinion  is  becoming  more  universal.  5.  A  worser  evil  awaits 
us.  6.  The  most  principal  point  was  entirely  overlooked.  7.  That 
form  of  expression  is  more  preferable. 

Caution.— When  an  adjective  denoting  one  or  more  than 
one  is  joined  to  a  noun,  the  adjective  and  the  noun  must 
agree  in  number. 

Remark. — A  numeral  denoting  more  than  one  may  be  prefixed  to  a 
singular  noun  to  form  a  compound  adjective  ;  as,  a  ten-foot  pole  (not 
a  ten-feet  pole),  a  three-cent  stamp. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Remark,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  These  kind  of  people  will  never  be  satisfied.  2.  The  room  is  fif- 
teen foot  square  ;  I  measured  it  with  a  two-feet  rule.  3.  The  farmer 
exchanged  five  barrel  of  potatoes  for  fifty  pound  of  sugar.  4.  These 
sort  of  expressions  should  be  avoided.  5.  We  were  traveling  at  the 
rate  of  forty  mile  an  hour.  6.  Remove  this  ashes  and  put  away  that 
tongs. 

Miscellaneous. 

(Two  of  these  examples  are  correct.) 

1.  He  was  more  active  than  any  other  of  his  companions. 
Correction. — As  he  is  not  one  of  his  companions,  other  is  unneces- 
sary. 

2.  He  did  more  to  accomplish  this  result  than  any  other  man  that 
preceded  or  followed  him.  3.  The  younger  of  the  three  sisters  is  the 
prettier. 

(This  is  the  construction  which  requires  the  superlative.  See  the 
second  Remark  in  this  Lesson.) 

4.  This  result,  of  all  others,  is  most  to  be  dreaded.  5.  She  was  will- 
ing to  take  a  more  humbler  part.  6.  Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  of 
the  ancient  kings.  7.  Which  of  these  two  books  is  the  best  ?  8.  A 
farmer  sold  two  span  of  horses,  five  yoke  of  oxen,  twenty  head  of  cat- 
tle, and  fifty  pair  of  ducks.     9.  This  is  the  more  preferable  form. 


228  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

10.  Which  are  the  two  more  important  ranges  of  mountains  in  North 
America  ? 


GENERAL     REVIEW. 
To  the  Teacher,— See  suggestions  to  the  teacher  page  219. 

*  Scheme    for    the   Adjective. 

[The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 
Modifier  (12). 


ADJECTIVE. 


Uses. 


Classes. 


Attribute  Complement  (29,  3o). 
Objective  Complement  (31 ). 


j  Descriptive  (89-91). 


Definitive  (89-91). 

iPos.  Degree] 
Com 
Sup. 


Pos.  Degree) 

Modification. — Comparison.   -^Comp.     *'      >• 

5up.        «'     ) 


127,  128. 


Questions  on  the  Adjective. 

1.  Define  the  adjective  and  its  classes. — Less.  89. 

2.  Define  comparison  and  the  degrees  of  comparison. — Less.  127. 

8.  Give  and  illustrate  the  regular  method  and  the  irregular  methods 
of  comparison. — Less.  127. 

4.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  ad- 
jectives.— Less.  90,  91. 

5.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  com- 
parative and  superlative  forms. — Less.  128. 


Sehenne  for  the  Adverb. 


ADVERB. 


Classes. 


Time. 

Place. 
Degree. 
Manner. 
Cause. 


Modification. — Comparison. 


92-94. 


i  Pos.  Deg. 
<  Comp, 
(Sup 


3eg.) 


127,  128. 


Modifications  of  the  Verb.  229 

Questions  on  the  Adverb. 

1.  Define  the  adverb  and  its  classes. — Less.  92. 

2.  Illustrate  the  regular  method  and  the  irregular  methods  of  com- 
parison.— Less.  127. 

3.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  ad- 
verbs.— Less.  93. 


l.£S§0«i  4ii. 

MODIFICATIONS    OF  THE  VERB. 

Voice. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  picked  a  rose,  A  rose  was  picked  hy  him. 
The  same  thing  is  here  told  in  two  ways.  The  first  verb,  picked,  shows 
that  the  subject  names  the  actor  ;  the  second  verb,  was  picked,  shows 
that  the  subject  names  the  thing  acted  upon.  These  different  forms 
and  uses  of  the  verb  constitute  the  modification  called  Voice.  The 
first  form  is  in  the  Active  Voice ;  the  second  is  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

The  active  voice  is  used  when  the  agevt,  or  actor,  is  to  be  made  prom- 
inent ;  the  passive,  when  the  tTiinig  acted  upon  is  to  be  made  prominent. 
The  passive  voice  may  be  used  when  the  agent  is  unknown,  or  when, 
for  any  reason,  we  do  not  care  to  name  it ;  as,  The  ship  was  wrecked; 
Money  is  coined. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Voice  is  that  modiflcation  of  the  transitive  yerb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  names  the  actor  or  the  thing  acted  upon. 

The  Active  Voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  actor. 

The  Passive  Voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  thing 
acted  upon. 

The  passive  form  is  compound,  and  may  be  resolved  into 


230         Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

an  asserting  word  (some  form  of  the  yerb  he),  and  an  attri- 
bute complement  (a  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb). 

An  expression  consisting  of  an  asserting  word  followed  by 
an  adjectiye  complement  or  by  a  participle  used  adjectively 
may  be  mistaken  for  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice. 

jffaeawj»?c«.— The  coat  wa%  sometimes  worn  by  Joseph  {was  worn — 
passive  voice).  The  coat  wa%  badly  worn  {was — incomplete  predicate, 
worn — adjective  complement). 

Remark. — To  test  the  passive  voice  note  whether  the  one  named  by 
the  subject  is  acted  upon,  and  whether  the  verb  may  be  followed  by  by 
before  the  name  of  the  agent. 

Direction. — TeU  which  of  the  following  completed  predicates  may  be 
treated  as  single  verbs,  and  which  should  be  resolved  into  incomplete  pred- 
icates and  attribute  complements  : — 

1.  The  lady  is  accomplished.  2.  This  task  was  not  accomplished  in 
a  day.  3.  Are  you  prepared  to  recite  ?  4.  Dinner  was  soon  prepared. 
5.  A  shadow  was  mistaken  for  a  foot-bridge.  6.  You  are  mistaken. 
7.  The  man  was  drunk  before  the  wine  was  drunk.  8.  The  house  is 
situated  on  the  bank  of  the  river.  9.  I  am  obliged  to  you.  10.  I  am 
obliged  to  do  this.  11.  The  horse  is  tired.  12.  A  fool  and  his  money 
are  soon  parted.  13.  The  tower  is  inclined.  14.  My  body  is  inclined 
by  years. 

Direction.— i^Towe  aU  the  transitive  verbs  in  Lesson  78,  and  give  their 
voice. 


LESiOfi  130. 

COMPOSITION— VOICE. 

The  object  complement  of  a  verb  in  the  active  voice  becomes 
the  subject  when  the  verb  is  changed  to  the  passive  voice. 


Composition —  Voice.  231 

Example. — The  Danes  invaded  England  =  England  was  invaded  by 
the  Danes. 

Remark. — You  will  notice  that  in  the  first  sentence  the  agent  is  made 
prominent ;  in  the  second  sentence  the  receiver. 

Direction. — In  each  of  these  sentences  change  the  to  ice  of  the  tran- 
sitive verb  mthmit  altering  th^  meaning  of  the  sentence,  and  note  the 
other  changes  tTiat  occur  : — 

1.  Mercury,  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  wore  a  winged  cap  and 
winged  shoes.  2.  When  the  Saxons  subdued  the  Britons,  they  intro- 
duced into  England  their  own  language,  which  was  a  dialect  of  the 
Teutonic,  or  Gothic.  3.  My  wife  was  chosen  as  her  wedding  dress  was 
chosen,  not  for  a  fine,  glossy  surface,  but  for  su6h  qualities  as  would 
wear  well.  4.  Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine,  was  worshiped  in  many 
parts  of  Greece  and  Rome.  5.  The  minds  of  children  are  dressed  by 
their  parents  as  their  bodies  are  dressed — in  the  prevailing  fashion. 

6.  Harvey,   an  English  physician,  discovered  that  blood  circulates. 

7.  The  luxury  of  Capua,  more  powerful  than  the  Roman  legions,  van- 
quished the  victorious  Carthaginians.  8.  His  eloquence  had  struck 
them  dumb. 

Remark. — Notice  that  the  objective  complement  becomes  the  attri- 
bute complement  when  the  verb  is  changed  from  the  active  to  the  pas- 
sive voice. 

9.  That  tribunal  pronounced  Charles  a  tyrant.  10.  The  town  had 
nicknamed  him  Beau  Seymour.  11.  Even  silent  night  proclaims  my 
soul  inmiortal.     13.  We  saw  the  storm  approaching. 

(Notice  that  the  objective  complement  is  here  a  participle.) 

13.  He  kept  his  mother  waiting.  14.  We  found  him  lying  dead  on 
the  field.    15.  We  all  believe  him  to  be  an  honest  man. 

(Notice  that  the  objective  complement  is  here  an  infinitive  phrase.) 

16.  Some,  sunk  to  beasts,  find  pleasure  end  in  pain.  17.  Everybody 
acknowledged  him  to  be  a  genius. 

The  so-called  indirect,  or  dative,  object  is  sometimes  made 


232  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

the  subject  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  while  the  object 
complement  is  retained  after  the  verb.* 

Macatnpie — The  porter  refused  him  admittance  =  He  was  refused  ad- 
mittance by  the  porter. 
(Some  would  treat  admitta/nce  as  adyerbial  modifier  of  was  refused.) 

Direction. — Change  the  voice  of  the  transitive  verbs  in  these  sentences^ 
and  note  the  other  changes  that  occur  : — 

18.  They  were  refused  the  protection  of  the  law.  19.  He  was  offered 
a  pension  by  the  government.  20.  I  was  asked  that  question  yesterday. 
21.  He  told  me  to  leave  the  room. 

Explanation. — Here  the  infinitive  phrase  is  the  object  complement, 
and  {to)  me  is  used  adverbially.  To  leave  the  room  =  that  I  should  leave 
the  room, 

22.  I  taught  the  child  to  read.  23.  I  taught  the  child  reading, 
24.  They  told  me  that  your  name  was  Fontibell. 

Direction. — Cha/nge  the  following  transitive  verbs  to  the  passive 
form,  using  first  the  regular  and  then  the  idiomatic  construe 
tion : — 

Model.— Re  promised  me  a  present  =  A  present  was  promised  me 
(regular)  =  I  was  promised  a  present  (idiomatic). 

25.  They  must  allow  us  the  privilege  of  thinking  for  ourselves. 
26.  He  offered  them  their  lives  if  they  would  abjure  their  religion. 

An  intransitive  verb  is  sometimes  made  transitive  by  the 
aid  of  a  preposition. 

Example.— AVL  his  friends  laughed  at  him  =  He  was  laughed  at 
(ridiculed)  by  all  his  friends. 

Remark. —  Was  laughed  at  may  be  treated  as  one  verb.  Some  gram- 
marians, however,  would  call  at  an  adverb.     The  intransitive  verb  and 

*  Some  grammarians  condemn  thia  construction.  It  is  true  that  it  is  a  violation  of 
the  general  analogies,  or  laws,  of  language ;  but  that  it  is  an  idiom  of  our  language, 
established  by  good  usage,  is  beyond  controversy. 


Modifications  of  the  Verb — Continued.  233 

preposition  are  together  equivalent  to  a  transitive  verb  in  the  passive 
voice. 

Direction. — Change  the  voice  of  the  following  verbs  : — 

27.  This  artful  feUow  has  imposed  upon  us  all.  28.  The  speaker 
did  not  even  touch  upon  this  topic.  29.  He  dropped  the  matter  there, 
and  did  not  refer  to  it  afterward. 

Remark.— The  following  sentences  present  a  peculiar  idiomatic  con- 
struction. A  transitive  verb  which,  in  the  active  voice,  is  followed  by 
an  object  complement  and  a  prepositional  phrase,  takes,  in  the  passive, 
the  principal  word  of  the  phrase  for  its  subject,  retaining  the  comple- 
ment and  the  preposition  to  complete  its  meaning;  as.  They  took  care 
ofity  It  was  taken  care  of. 

Direction. — Fiit  the  following  sentences  info  several  different  formSp 
and  determine  wfdch  is  the  best : — 

30.  His  original  purpose  was  lost  sight  of  *  (forgotten).  31.  Such 
talents  should  be  made  much  of.  32.  He  was  taken  care  of  by  his 
friends.  33.  Some  of  his  characters  have  been  found  fault  with  as 
insipid. 


LESSON  tSt. 

MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  VERB— CONTINUED. 

Mode,  Tense,  Number,  and  Person.  rf 

Introductory  Hints.— James  walks.  Here  the  walking  is  asserted 
as  an  actual  fact.    Ja/mes  may  walk.    Here  the  walking  is  asserted  not 

*  Some  would  parse  of  as  an  adverb  relating  to  was  lost,  and  sight  as  a  noun  used 
adverbially  to  modify  was  lost ;  others  would  treat  sight  as  an  object  [complement]  of 
was  lost ;  others  would  call  was  lost  sight  of  a  compound  verb  ;  and  others,  claiming 
that  the  logical  relation  of  these  words  is  not  lost  by  a  change  of  position,  analyze  it 
as  if  arranged  thus  :  Sight  of  his  original  purpose  was  lost. 

It  seems  to  us  that  any  separate  disposition  of  these  words  is  unsatisfactory. 

Mr.  Goold  Brown  pronounces  this  construction  "  an  unparsable  synchysis,  a  vile 
snarl,  which  no  grammarian  should  hesitate  to  condemn." 


234  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

as  an  actual,  but  as  a  possible  fact.  If  James  walk  out,  he  will  improve. 
Here  the  walking  is  asserted  only  as  thongJit  of,  without  regard  to  its 
being  or  becoming  either  an  actual  or  a  possible  fact.  James,  walk  out. 
Here  the  walking  is  not  asserted  as  a  fact,  but  only  as  a  command — 
James  is  ordered  to  make  it  a  fact.  These  different  uses  and  forms 
of  the  verb  constitute  the  modification  which  we  call  Mode.  The  first 
verb  is  in  the  Indicative  Mode  ;  the  second  in  the  Potential  Mode ; 
the  third  in  the  Subjunctive  Mode ;  the  fourth  in  the  Imperative 
Mode. 

For  the  two  forms  of  the  verb  called  the  Participle  and  the  Infinitive, 
see  Lessons  37  and  40. 

I  walk.  I  walked.  I  shall  walk.  In  these  three  sentences  the  mxin- 
ner  of  asserting  the  action  is  the  same,  but  the  time  in  which  the  action 
takes  place  is  different.  Walk  asserts  the  action  as  going  on  in  present 
time,  and,  as  Tense  means  time,  is  in  the  Present  Tense.  Walked 
asserts  the  action  as  past,  and  is  in  the  Past  Tense.  8hall  walk  asserts 
the  action  as  future,  and  is  in  the  Future  Tense. 

I  have  walked  out  to-day.  I  had  walked  out  ichen  he  called.  I  shall 
hxive  walked  out  by  to-morrow.  Have  walked  asserts  the  action  as  com- 
pleted at  the  present,  and  is  in  the  Present  Perfect  Tense.  Had 
walked  asserts  the  action  as  completed  in  the  past,  and  is  in  the  Past 
Perfect  Tense.  Shall  have  walked  asserts  the  action  as  completed  in 
the  future,  and  is  in  the  Future  Perfect  Tense. 

I  walk.  Thou  walkest.  He  walks.  They  walk.  In  the  second  sen- 
tence walk  is  changed  by  adding  est ;  in  the  third  sentence  by  adding  s. 
Verbs  are  said  to  agree  in  Person  and  Number  with  their  subjects. 
But  this  agreement  is  not  often,  as  here,  marked  by  changes  in  the  form 
of  the  verb. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Mode  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  denotes  the  manner 
of  asserting  the  action  or  being. 

The  Indicative  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  fact. 

The  JPotenfial  Mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  possibility,  or 
necessity  of  acting  or  being. 


Modifications  of  the   Verb — Continued.  235 

The  Subjunctive  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  bein^  as  a  mere 
condition,  supposition,^  or  wish. 

Tlie  Imperative  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  com- 
mand or  an  entreaty. 


The  Infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  Terb  which  names  the  action  or 
being  in  a  general  way,  without  asserting  it  of  anytliing. 

The  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  an  adjective  or  of  a  noun,  and  expressing  the  action  or  being 
as  assumed. 

The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  continuing 
at  tlie  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

The  Past  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  past  or  com- 
pleted at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

The  Past  Perfect  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  a  time  previous  to  that  indicated  by  the  predicate. 


Tense  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  expresses  the  time 
of  the  action  or  being. 

The  Present  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  present. 

The  Past  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  past. 

The  Future  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  yet  to  come. 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  the  present  time. 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  to  be 
completed  at  some  future  time. 


Number  and  Person  of  a  verb  are  those  modifications  that 
show  its  agreement  with  the  number  and  person  of  its  subject. 


236  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

FORMS    OF  THE   VERB. 
Conjugation. 
DEFINITIONS. 
Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  all  the  forms  of 
the  verb. 

Synopsis  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  forms  of  one  num- 
ber and  person  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 

Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  that  help  in  the  conjugation  of 
other  verbs. 

The  auxiliaries  are  do,  did,  he  (with  all  its  variations,  see 
Lesson  135),  Have,  had,  shall,  should,  will,  would,  may, 
might,  can,  could,  and  7nust, 

The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb,  or  those  from  which  the  other 
parts  are  derived,  are  the  present  indicative  or  the  present  infini- 
tive, the  past  indicative,  and  the  past  participle. 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs. 

To  the  Teacher.— It  would  be  well  to  require  the  pupils,  in  studying  and  in  re- 
citing these  lists  of  irregular  verbs,  to  frame  short  sentences  illustrating  the  proper 
use  of  the  past  tense  and  the  past  particij)le,  e.  g.,  I  began  yesterday.  He  has  begun  to 
do  better.  In  this  way  the  pupils  will  be  saved  the  mechanical  labor  of  memorizing 
forms  which  they  already  know  how  to  use,  and  they  will  be  led  to  correct  what  has 
been  faulty  in  their  use  of  other  forms. 

Remark. — Verbs  that  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular  form  are 
called  Redundant. 

Verbs  that  are  wanting  in  any  of  their  parts,  as  can  and  may,  are 
called  Defective. 

The  present  participle  is  not  here  given  as  a  principal  part.  It  may 
always  be  formed  from  the  present  tense  by  adding  iiig. 

In  adding  ing  and  other  terminations,  the  Rules  for  Spelling  (see 
Lesson  127)  should  be  observed. 

Remark. — The  forms,  below,  in  Italics  are  regular ;  and  those  in 
smaller  type  are  obsolete,  and  need  not  be  committed  to  memory. 


Forms  of  the   Verb. 


237 


Present.      Past. 

Abide, 

Awake, 

Be,  or  am. 
Bear, 

{bring  forth) 

Bear, 

{carry) 
Beat, 
Begin, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bet, 

Bid, 
Bind, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 

Blend, 


Blow, 
Break, 

Breed, 
Bring, 

Build, 

Bum, 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Can, 

Cast, 

Catch, 


Past  Par. 


abode. 

abode. 

awoke, 
awaked, 

awaked. 

was. 

been. 

bore. 

bom. 

bare, 

borne. 

bore. 

borne. 

bare, 

beat. 

beaten. 

began. 

begun. 

bent. 

bent. 

bended. 

bended. 

bereft, 

bereft. 

bereaved. 

bereaved. 

besought, 

besought. 

bet. 

bet. 

betted, 

betted. 

bade,  bid. 

bidden,  bid 

bound. 

bound. 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

bled. 

bled. 

blent, 

blent. 

blended, 

blended. 

blest, 

blest. 

blessed, 

blessed. 

blew, 

blown. 

broke, 

broken. 

brake, 

bred, 

bred. 

brought, 

brought. 

built, 

built. 

builded, 

builded. 

burnt. 

burnt. 

burned. 

burned. 

burst, 

burst. 

bought. 

bought. 

could. 

. 

cast. 

cast. 

caught, 

caught. 

Present.      Past. 


Chide, 

Choose, 
Cleave, 
{adhere) 

Cleave, 
{splii) 

CUng, 

Clothe, 

(Be)  Come, 

Cost, 

Creep, 

Crow, 

Cut, 

Dare, 

{venture) 

Deal, 

Dig, 

Do, 
Draw, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Drink, 
Drive, 

Dwell, 

Eat, 

(Be)  FaU, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 


chid, 

chose, 

cleaved, 

clave, 

clove, 

cleft, 

clave, 

clung, 

clad, 

clothed, 

came, 

cost, 

crept, 

crew, 

crowed, 

cut, 

durst, 

dared, 

dealt, 

dug, 

digged, 

did, 

drew, 

dreamt, 

dreamed, 

drest, 
dressed, 

drank, 

drove, 

dwelt, 

dwelled, 

ate, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found. 


Past  Par. 

chidden, 
chid, 
chosen. 
cleaved. 

cloven, 
cleft. 

clung. 

clad. 

clothed. 

come. 

cost. 

crept. 

crowed. 

cut. 

dared. 

dealt. 

dug. 

digged. 

done. 

drawn. 

dreamt. 

dreamed. 

drest. 

dressed. 

drunk. 

driven. 

dwelt. 

dwelled. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 


238  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Pa/r. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Knit, 

knit. 

knit. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

knitted, 

knitted. 

Fly, 

flew. 

flown. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

Lade, 

laded, 

laded. 

Forbear, 

forbore. 

forborne. 

(load) 

laden. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

(For)  Get, 

got, 

got, 

Lead, 

led. 

led. 

gotten.* 

Lean, 

leant. 

leant. 

Gilrl 

gilt. 

gilt. 

leaned, 

leaned. 

vXUU, 

Gird, 

gilded^ 
girt, 

gilded. 
girt. 

Leap, 

leapt, 
leaped. 

leapt. 

leaped. 

girded, 

girded. 

learnt. 

learnt. 

(For)  Give 

,  gave. 

given. 

Learn, 

learned, 

learned. 

Go, 

went, 

gone. 

Leave, 

left. 

left. 

(En)Grave 

Grind, 
Grow, 

,  graved, 

ground, 
grew. 

gra/ced. 
graven, 
ground, 
grown. 

Lend, 

Let, 

Lie, 

(rechne) 

lent, 

let, 

lay. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

Hang, 

hung, 
hanged, 

hung. 
hanged.jf 

Light, 

lit, 
lighted. 

lit.§ 
lighted. 

Have, 

had. 

had. 

Lose, 

lost. 

lost. 

Hear, 

heard. 

heard. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

Heave, 

hove, 
heaved, 

hove.:}: 
heaved. 

May, 

might. 

Hew, 

hewed. 

hewed. 
hewn. 

Mean, 
Meet, 

meant, 
met. 

meant, 
met. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid. 

Mow, 

mowed. 

mowed. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

mown. 

(Be)  Hold, 

held. 

held. 

Must, 

• 

nolden. 

Ought, 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept. 

Pen, 

pent, 

pent. 

Kneel, 

knelt, 

knelt. 

(enclose) 

penned, 

penned. 

kneeled. 

kneeled. 

Put, 

put. 

put. 

*  Ootten  is  obsolescent  except  in  forgotten. 
t  Hang,  to  execute  by  hanging,  is  regular. 
X  H&oe  is  used  in  sea  language. 
§  Lighted  is  preferred  to  lit. 


List  of  Irregular   Verbs — Continued. 


239 


LEiiO^  133. 


LIST 

OF  IRREGULAR 

VERBS 

5— CONT 

'INUED. 

Present. 

Past. 

Pant  Pa/r. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Quit, 

quit, 

quit. 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

quitted^ 

quitted. 

Shine, 

shone. 

shone. 

quoth, 

shinedy 

shined. 

Rap, 

rapt. 

rapt. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

ra/ppedj 

rapped. 

Shoot, 

shot. 

shot. 

Read, 
Rend, 

read, 
rent. 

read, 
rent. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown. 
showed. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. 

Ride, 

rode. 

ridden. 

Shrink, 

shrank, 

shrunk, 

Ring, 

rang, 

rung. 

shrunk. 

shrunken. 

rung, 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

(A)Rise, 

rose. 

risen. 

Sing, 

sang. 

sung. 

Rive, 

rivedy 

riven. 
rived. 

Sink, 

sung, 
sank. 

sunk. 

sunk. 

sunken. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Sit, 

sat. 

sat. 

Saw, 

sawedf 

sawed. 

aayxm 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Say, 

said. 

SOiWil. 

said. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

slept. 

&ee. 

saw. 

seen. 

Slide, 

sUd, 

slidden, 
slid. 

oeeK, 

sought. 

sought. 

Sling, 

slung. 

slung. 

Seethe, 

seefhedy 

seethed. 

slang. 

sod. 

sodden. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Sell, 

sold. 

sold. 

sut. 

slit. 

slit. 

Send, 

sent, 

sent. 

slitted. 

slitted. 

(Be)Set, 

set. 

set. 

SmpU 

smelt. 

smelt. 

Shake, 

shook. 

shaken. 

k-/iXLV/XXy 

smeUed, 

smeUed. 

ShaU, 

should, 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten. 

Shape, 

shaped. 

shaped. 

snut. 

Shave, 

sha/oed. 

shapen. 
shaced. 

Sow, 

sowedj 

sown. 
sowed. 

shaven. 

Speak, 

spoke. 

spoken. 

Shear, 

sheared. 

sheared. 

spake. 

shore, 

shorn. 

Speed, 

sped. 

sped. 

240  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Spell, 

spelt, 

spelt. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

spelled, 

spelled. 

Swell, 

sweUed, 

sweUed. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent. 

swollen. 

Spill, 

spilt. 

spilt. 

Swim, 

swam. 

swum. 

spilled, 

spilled. 

swum. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spun. 

Swing, 

swung. 

swung. 

span, 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Spit, 

spit, 
spat, 

spit, 
spitten. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

Tear, 

tore, 
tare. 

torn. 

Spoil, 

Spread, 
Spring, 

spoilt, 

spoiled, 

spread, 

sprang, 
sprung, 

spoilt. 
spoiled. 
spread, 
sprung. 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 

told, 
thought, 

throve, 
thrived, 

told, 
thought, 
thriven. 
thrived. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Throw, 

threw. 

thrown. 

Stave, 

Stay, 
Steal, 

stove, 

stove. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thrust. 

staved, 
staid. 

staved. 
staidi 

Tread, 

trod. 

trodden, 
trod. 

stayed, 
stole, 

stayed. 
stolen. 

Wake, 

waked, 
woke. 

waked. 

Stick, 
Sting, 

stuck, 
stung, 

stuck, 
stung. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen. 
waxed. 

Stink, 

stunk, 

stunk. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

stank, 

Weave, 

wove. 

woven. 

Strew, 
Stride, 

strewed, 
strode, 

strewn. 
strewed. 
stridden. 

Weep, 
Wet, 

wept, 

wet, 
wetted. 

wept. 

wet. 
wetted. 

Strike, 

struck. 

struck, 
stricken. 

Will, 

would. 

. 

String, 
Strive, 

strung, 
strove. 

strung, 
striven. 

Win, 
Wind, 

won, 
wound, 

won. 
wound. 

Strow, 

strowed, 

strown. 
strowed. 

Work, 

wrought, 
worked. 

wrought. 
worked. 

Swear, 

swore, 
Bware, 

sworn. 

(to)wit, 
wot, 

wist. 

. 

Sweat, 

sweat, 

sweat. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wrung. 

sweated, 

sweated. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Forms  of  the   Verb — Continued.  245 

LESSOli   434. 

FORMS    OF    THE    VERB— CONTINUED. 
Conjugation — Simplest  Form. 

Remark. — English  verbs  have  few  inflections  compared  with  those  of 
other  languages.  Some  irregular  verbs  have  seven  forms — see,  saw, 
seeing,  seen,  sees,  seest,  sawest;  regular  verbs  have  six — 'walk, 
walked,  walking,  walks,  walkest,  walkedst.  As  a  substitute  for 
other  inflections  we  prefix  auxiliary  verbs,  and  make  what  are  called 
compound,  ov  periphrastic,  forms. 

Direction. — Fill  out  the  following  formSf  using  the  principal  parts  of 
the  verb  walk.  Present,  walk;  past,  walked;  past  par- 
ticiple,  walked. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 
Peesent  Tense.* 
Singular,  Plural, 

1.  (We)  Pres.     ^ 

2.  (You)  Pres.     ^ 

3.  (They)       Pres.    _ 

Past  Tense. 

1.      (I)              Past.    ^  1.  (We)  Pa^'    , 

((You)    _J^ast^,  f,.,. 

((Thou)       Past.    St.  ^      ^      • 

3.      (He)          Past.    ;  8.  (They)  Past-    . 

Future  Tense. 

1.  (We)  shaU      Pres.    ^ 

2.  (You)  wiU      Pres.    ^ 
3.     (He)mK            Pre.«.     ■                3.  (They)  mg      Pres.    . 

*  In  the  indicative,  present,  second,  singular,  old  style,  st  is  sometimes  added  in- 
stead of  est ;  and  in  the  third  person,  common  style,  es  is  added,  when  s  will  not 
unite.    In  the  third  person,  old  style,  e(h  is  added. 

16 


(I) 

Pres. 

((You)    _ 
^Thou) 
(He)       _ 

(I) 

Pres. 
Pres. 
Pres. 

Past. 

_s;* 

i(You)    _ 
((Thou) 
(He)       _ 

(I)  shaU 

Past. 
Past. 
Past. 

u    Z. 

il-t  _ 

Zst, 

.  -? 

Pres. 

( (You)  wii 

Pres. 

(Thou)  w 

Pres. 

(He)  will 

Pre.«.     . 

242  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.     (I)  have  P<^i  Par.^  1.  (We)  ham    Pasi_Par.^ 

( (You)  have    ^L^,       '  ^  ^^^^  ^^ 

((Thou)  host  P^!L^^,  

3.    {Re)hars       Past  Par..  3.  (They)  have  Pa^J  Par._ 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 
1.     (I)  had  Pgg^  Par.^  1.  (We)  had    Past  Par., 

UYou)had         Po^LPo^,  3^   (You)W   Past  Par., 

^'    i  (Thou)  had-st  Past  Par.^ 
3.      (He)Mc?  Past  Par..  3.  (They)  had  Past  Par.. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 
1.     (I)  shall  have        Past  Par.^  1.  (We)  shall  ha/ce     Past  Par., 

UY^)  mil  have    ^^,  ^    ^Yon)  will  h^ve    PaMJ^ 

( (Thou)  ml-t  hoAiePast  Par.^  * 

3.     (Re)  will  Jiave      Past  Par..  3.  {Thej)  will  have  Past  Par., 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Bingula/r.  Plwal. 

1.     (I)  may  Pr^-    ,  1.  (We)  Tnay       Pres.    ^ 


UYo^l)may        __^^_,  (You)  may      Pres.     ^ 

((Thovi)  mav-st     Pres.    ^  ^        '       ^   ' 

3.     (He)  may  Pres.    .  3.  (They)  may     Pres.    _ 

Past  Tense. 

1.  (J)  might  Pres.     ^  1.   (We)  might      Pres.     , 

-    S(YovL)might  Pres. 

2.  l/m,      X      .  x.    ^~~^ 3.  (You)  might  _Pres^^ 

i  (Thou)  might-st     Pres.     .  ^        ^      ■^      ' 

3.  Qle)  might  Pres.     .  8.  (They)  might ^^r^s^_. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.     (I)  TO«y  AcM)6  PastPm\^  1.  (We)  Tmy  Aa«e    Pa^<  Par., 

^   j  (You)  may  have  Past  Par.  c,    ,^t     .  ,  «   v  r. 

2-  1  (Thou)  ma3,-,s«  have  ^^Z  ^^  (^°»>  ""'2'  ^'^    ^^^^^^^' 

3.     (He)  may  ?m>e  Past  Par..  3.  (They)  Jraojr  h(we  Po"'  Pt"--. 


Conjugation,  243 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      (I)  might  have  Po^t  Par.^  1.  (We)  might  have  Past_Pa7\^ 

-     \  (You)  might  have        Past_Par.              c>    ,^t     ^       •  i..  t.        d    ^  n 
3.  l/rru     N     -7^    ^7        D   ,   p    '            2.  (You)  might  have  Pas^Par., 
i  (Thou)  might  st  have  Past  Par.^  ^  '^ ' 

3.     (B.e)  might  have         Past  Far..  3.  (They)  might  have  Po^  Pat'-. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular. 
2.  (If  thou)      Pres.    ^  3.  (If  he)*      Pres. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.      Pres.      (you  or  thou)  ;  2.      Pres.     (ypu  or  ye). 

INFINITIVES. 
Present  Tense,  Present  Perfect  Tense. 

f  (To)      Pres.     .  (To)  have  Past  Par., 

*  The  subjunctive  as  a  form  of  the  verb  is  fading  out  of  the  language.  The  only 
distinctive  forms  remaining  (except  for  the  verb  be)  are  the  second  and  the  third  per- 
son singular  of  the  present,  and  even  these  are  giving  way  to  the  indicative.  Such 
forms  as  If  he  have  loved,  etc.,  are  exceptional.  It  is  true  that  other  forms  ;  as,  If  he 
had  known.  Had  he  been.  Should  he  fall.,  may  be  used  in  a  true  subjunctive  sense, 
to  assert  what  is  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind,  i.  e.,  what  is  merely  thought  of, 
without  regard  to  its  beiBg  or  becoming  a  fact ;  but  in  these  cases  it  is  not  the/on»  of 
the  vejb,  but  the  connective  or  something  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence  that  de- 
termines the  manner  of  assertion.  In  parsing,  the  verbs  in  such  constructions  may 
be  treated  as  indicative  or  potential,  with  a  subjunctive  meaning. 

The  offices  of  the  different  mode  and  tense  forms  are  constantly  interchanging  ;  a 
classification  based  strictly  on  meaning  would  be  very  difficult,  and  would  confuse 
the  learner. 

t  To,  as  indicated  by  the  ( ),  is  not  treated  as  a  part  of  the  verb.  Writers  on  lan- 
guage are  generally  agreed  that  when  (o  introduces  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb,  it  performs  its  proper  function  as  a  preposition,  meaning  to- 
ward, for,  etc.  ;  as,  I  am  inclined  to  believe,  I  came  to  hear.  When  the  infinitive 
phrase  is  used  as  a  noun,  the  to  expresses  no  relation";  it  seems  merely  to  introduce 
the  phrase.  When  a  word  loses  its  proper  function  without  taking  on  the  function  of 
some  other  part  of  speech,  we  do  not  see  why  it  should  change  its  name.  In  the  ex- 
pressions, For  me  to  do.  this  would  be  wrong,  Over  the  fence  is  out  of  danger,  few 


244  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present.  Past.  Past  Perfect. 

Pres.    trig.  Pggj!  Par.^  Having  Past_Paf\^ 

May,  can,  and  inust  are  potential  auxiliaries  in  the 
present  and  the  present  perfect  tense;  might,  could,  would, 
and  should,  in  the  past  and  the  past  perfect. 

The  emphatic  form  of  the  present  and  the  past  tense  in- 
dicative is  made  by  prefixing  do  and  did  to  the  present.  Do 
is  prefixed  to  the  imperative  also. 

To  the  Teacher.— Require  the  pupils  to  fill  out  these  forms  with  other  verbs, 
regular  and  irregular,  using  the  auxiliaries  named  above. 


Lm%m  isi, 


FORMS  OF  THE  VERB— CONTINUED. 
Conjugation  of  the  Verb  BE. 
"Direciion.—Learn  the  following  forms,  paying  no  attention  to  the  line 
at  the  right  of  each  veri  : — 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 
Present  Tense. 
Singular.                                            Plural. 
1.     (I)  am- ,  1.  (We)  are , 

„    ( (You)  are ^,  or  „    ,,,    , 

2'  "i/rru     \     4-  2.  (You)  are , 

( (Thou)  art ,  ^       ^  ' 

S.     (He)  is ;  3.  (They)  are . 

grammarians  would  hesitate  to  call  for  and  over  prepositions,  although  they  have  no 
antecedent  term  of  relation. 

We  cannot  see  that  to  is  a  part  of  the  verb,  for  it  in  no  way  Jiffects  the  meaning,  a? 
does  an  auxiliary,  or  as  does  the  to  in  He  was  spoken  to.  Those  who  call  it  a  part  of 
the  verb  confuse  the  learner  by  speaking  of  it  as  the  "  preposition  to  "  (which,  as 
they  have  said,  is  not  a  preposition)  "  placed  before  the  infinitive,"  i,  e.,  placed  before 
that  of  which  it  forms  a  part— placed  before  itself. 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  to  was  used  with  the  infinitive  only  in  tlie  dative  case,  where  it 
had  its  proper  function  as  a  preposition  ;  as,  nominative,  etan  (to  eat)  ;  dative,  to 
etanne ;  accusative,  etan.  When  the  dative  ending  ne  was  dropped,  making  the  three 
forms  alike,  the  to  came  to  be  used  before  the  nominative  and  the  accusative,  but 
without  expressing  relation. 


Forms  of  the  Verb — Continued. 


245 


Past  Tense. 


Angular. 


Plural. 


1.     (I)  was- 


2. 


( (You)  were  - 
( (Thou)  wast 


or 


3.     (He)  was 


1.     (I)  shall  be 

( (You)  will  be  - 
■i(Thou)wUtbe 

3.     (He)  wiU  be  — 


1.  (We)  were 

2.  (You)  were  — 

3.  (They)  were  - 

Future  Tense. 

1.  (We)  shall  be - 

'*  3.  (You)  will  be - 

3.  (They)  will  be 


Peesent  Perfect  Tense. 

1.     (I)  have  been ,  1.  (We)  have  been 

( (You)  have  been ,  or 


\  (Thou)  hast  been 


3 .     (He)  has  been 


2.  (You)  have  been - 

3.  (They)  have  been 


1.     (I)  had  been 


( (You)  had  been  — 
\  (Thou)  hadst  been 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  (We)  had  been  - 

'  ^  S.  (You)  had  been 


3.     (He)  had  been- 


3.  (They)  had  been 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 
1.     (I)  shall  have  been ,  1.  (We)  shall  have  been 


2. 


( (You)  will  have  been  - 
\  (Thou)  wilt  have  been 
3.     (He)  will  have  been  — 


or 


2.  (You)  will  have  been , 

3.  (They)  will  have  been . 


2. 


(I)  may  be 

j  (You)  may  be  — 
\  (Thou)  mayst  be 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
r.                                              Plural. 
-,  1.  (We)  may  be 


3.     (He)  may  be 


2.  (You)  may  be  - 

3.  (They)  may  be- 


246  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Past  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.     (I)  might  be ,  1.  (We)  might  be , 

„    ( (You)  might  be ,  or  „    ,^     ,     .  ,  ,  , 

^.  i  ,mu     \     •  v.4.^  V  3.  (You)  might  be , 

^Thou)  mightst  be ,  v       /      &  > 

8.     (He)  might  be ;  3.  (They)  might  be . 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  (I)  may  have  been ,  1.  (We)  may  have  been  — 

„    ( (You)  may  have  been ,  or     ^    .^    .         -u       x. 

2.  k;^,    \          i.  u       u  2.  (You)  may  have  been  — 
( (Thou)  mayst  have  been ,         ^       '      •' 

3.  (He)  may  have  been ;  3.  (They)  may  have  been  - 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.     (I)  might  have  been ,  1.  (We)  might  have  been  - 

^    ((You)  might  have  been ,or    o    /tt    %     •  ui-i,       i, 

2-  ilThou)m1ghtsthaTebeen-^,   2.  (You) might haye been- 

8.     (He)  might  have  been ;        3.  (They)  might  have  been- 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.                                              Plural. 
1.     (If  I)  be ,  1.  (If  we)  be , 

^•ii»n)t=ir      MHyou,be_, 


(if  he)  be ;  3.  (If  they)  be 

Past  Tense. 
SingvZa/r. 


1.     (If  I)  were , 

-    ( (If  you)  were ,  or 

i  (If  thou)  wert , 

8.     (If  he)  were — . 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Plural. 
2.  Be  (you  or  thou) ;  2.  Be  (you  or  ye) 


Forms  of  the   Verb — Continued.  247 

INFINITIVES. 
Peesent  Tense.                      Present  Perfect  Tense. 
(To)  be .  (To)  have  been . 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present.                  Past.                  Past  Perfect. 
Being .  Been.  Having  been . 


LESSOR  43§. 

FORMS  OF  THE  VERB— CONTINUED. 
Conjugation — Progressive  and  Passive  Forms. 
A  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form  by  joining 
its  present  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  he. 

A  transitive  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  by 
joining  its  past  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the 
verb  le. 

Remark. — The  progressive  form  denotes  a  continuance  of  the  action 
or  being  ;  as,  The  birds  are  singing. 

Verbs  that  in  their  simple  form  denote  continuance — such  as  love, 
respect,  know — should  not  be  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form.  We 
say,  I  love  the  child — not,  I  am  loving  the  child. 

Remark. — The  progressive  form  is  sometimes  used  with  a  passive 
meaning  ;  as,  The  house  is  building.  In  such  cases  the  word  in  ing  was 
once  a  verbal  noun  preceded  by  the  preposition  a,  a  contraction  from  on 
or  in  ;  as,  While  the  ark  wa^  a  preparing.  While  the  flesh  was  in  seeth- 
ing. In  modem  language  the  preposition  is  dropped,  and  the  word  in 
in^  is  treated  adjectively. 

Another  passive  progressive  form,  consisting  of  the  verb  he  completed 
by  the  present  passive  participle,  has  recently  app'eared  in  our  language 
— The  house  is  bein^  built.  Although  it  has  been  condemned  by  many 
of  our  ablest  linguists  as  awkward  and  otherwise  objectionable,  yet  it 
has  grown  rapidly  into  good  use,  especially  in  England.  Such  a  form 
seems  to  be  needed  when  the  simpler  form  would  be  ambiguous,  i.  e., 


248  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

when  its  subject  might  be  taken  to  name  either  the  actor  or  the  receiver; 
as,  The  child  is  whipping,  The  prisoner  is  trying. 

Direction. — Conjugate  the  verb  choose  in  the  progressive 
form  by  filling  all  the  blanks  left  after  the  different  forms  of  the  verb 
be,  in  the  preceding  Lesson,  with  the  present  participle  choosing ; 
and  then  in  the  passive  form  by  filling  tliese  blanks  with  the  past 
participle  chosen. 

Notice  that  after  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  be  no  blank  is  left. 
The  past  participle  of  the  passive  is  not  formed  by  the  aid  of  be,  but  is 
the  same  in  form  as  the  simple  active  participle.  In  the  progressive,  the 
past  participle  is  wanting.  All  the  participles  of  the  verb  choose  are 
arranged  in  order  below. 

Present.  Past.  Past  Perfect. 

Simplest  form.        Choosing,  chosen,       having  chosen. 

Progressive  form.    Being  choosing,    having  been  choosing. 

Passive  form.  Being  chosen,       chosen,       having  been  chosen. 

Direction. —  Write  and  arrange,  as  above,  all  the  participles  of  ths 
verbs  break,  drive,  read,  lift. 

To  the  Teacfoer.— Select  other  verbs,  and  require  the  pupils  to  conjugate  them 
in  the  progressive  and  the  passive  form.  Require  them  to  give  synopses  of  all  the 
forms.  Require  them  in  some  of  their  synopses  to  use  it  or  some  noun  for  the  subject 
in  the  third  person. 


LESSOU  43?. 

CONJUGATION— CONTINUED. 
Interrogative  and  Negative  Forms. 
A  verb  may  be  conjugated  interrogatively  in  the  indica- 
tive and  potential  modes  by  placing  the  subject  after  the 
first  auxiliary  ;  as,  Does  he  sing  f 

A  verb  may  be  conjugated  negatively  by  placing  not  after 
the  first  auxiliary ;  as,  He  does  not  sing.  Not  is  placed 
before  the  infinitives  and  the  participles  ;  as,  not  to  sing,  not 


Mode  and  Tense  Forms.  249 

A  question  with  negation  is  expressed  in  the  indicative 
and  potential  modes  by  placing  the  subject  and  not  after  the 
first  auxiliary  ;  as,  Does  he  not  sing  9 

Remark. — Formerly,  it  was  common  to  use  the  simple  form  of  the 
present  and  past  tenses  interrogatively  and  negatively  thus :  Loves  he  9 
I  know  not.  Such  forms  are  still  common  in  poetry,  but  in  prose  they 
are  now  scarcely  used.  We  say.  Does  hb  love  f  I  do  not  know.  The 
verbs  he  and  have  are  exceptions,  as  they  do  not  regularly  take  the  aux- 
iliary do.    We  say,  Have  you  another  f    Is  it  right  ? 

Direction. —  Write  a  sy  nop  sis  in  the  third  person,  singular,  of 
the  verb  walk  conjugated  (1)  interrogativ el y,  (2)  negatively, 
and  (3)  so  as  to  express  a  question  with  negation.  Itememher 
that  the  indicative  and  the  potential  are  the  only  modes  that  can  be  used 
interrogatively. 

To  the  Teacher.— Select  other  verbs,  and  require  the  pupils  to  conjugate  them 
negatively  and  interrogatively  in  the  progressive  and  the  passive  form.  Require  the 
pupils  to  give  synopses  of  all  the  forms. 


LISSOM  43S. 

MODE    AND    TENSE     FORMS. 
Compound  Forms— Analysis. 

The  compound,  or  periphrastic,  forms  of  the  verb  may  each  be  re- 
solved into  an  asserting  word,  and  a  participle  or  an  infinitive  used 
as  a  complement. 

If  we  look  at  the  original  meaning  of  the  forms  I  do  write,  I  shall 
write,  I  will  write,  we  shall  find  that  the  so-called  auxiliary  is  the  real 
verb,  and  that  write  is  an  infinitive  used  as  object  complement.  I  do 
write  =  I  do  or  perform  the  action  (to)  write.  I  shall  write  =  I  owe 
(to)  write.     I  will  write  =  I  determine  (to)  write. 

May  write,  can  write,  must  write,  might  write,  could  write, 
would  write,  and  should  write  may  each  be  resolved  into  an  asserting 
word  in  the  indicative  mode  and  an  infinitive  complement. 


250  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  forms  is  writing,  was  written,  etc.,  consist  each  of  an  asserting 
word  (the  verb  he)  and  a  participle,  used  as  attribute  complement. 

The  forms  have  written,  had  written  are  so  far  removed  from  their 
original  meaning  that  their  analysis  cannot  be  made  to  correspond  with 
their  history.  They  originated  from  such  expressions  as  /  have  a  letter 
written,  in  which  have  (=  possess)  is  a  transitive  verb,  taking  letter  for 
its  object  complement,  and  written  is  a  passive  participle  modifying 
letter.  The  idea  of  possession  has  faded  out  of  have,  and  the  participle, 
having  lost  its  passive  meaning,  has  become  a  complement  of  have.  The 
use  of  this  form  has  been  extended  to  intransitive  verbs — Spring  has 
come,  Birds  have  flown,  etc.,  being  now  regularly  used  instead  of  Spring 
is  come,  Birds  are  flown.  {Is  come,  are  flown,  etc.,  must  not  be  mis- 
taken for  transitive  verbs  in  the  passive  voice.) 

Compounds  of  more  than  two  words  may  be  analyzed  thus  :  May 
have  been  written  is  composed  of  the  compound  auxiliary  may  have 
been  and  the  participle  complement  written  5  may  have  been  is  com- 
posed of  the  compound  auxiliary  may  have  and  the  participle  comple- 
ment been ;  and  may  have  is  composed  of  the  auxiliary  may  and  the 
infinitive  complement  have.  May  is  the  asserting  word — the  first 
auxiliary  is  always  the  asserting  word. 

Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said  above  and  analyze  the  follow- 
ing verbal  forms,  distinguishing  carefully  between  participles  that  may 
be  considered  as  part  of  the  verb,  and  words  that  must  be  treated  as 
attribute  complements  :— 

1.  I  may  be  mistaken.  2.  The  farm  was  sold.  3.  1  shall  be  con- 
tented. 4.  Has  it  been  decided  ?  5.  You  should  have  been  working. 
6.  The  danger  might  have  been  avoided.  7.  He  may  have  been  tired 
and  sleepy.  8.  She  is  singing.  9.  I  shall  be  satisfied.  10.  The  rule 
has  not  been  observed.  11.  Stars  have  disappeared.  12.  Times  will 
surely  change. 

Tense  Forms— Meaning. 

The  Present  Tense  is  used  to  express  (1)  what  is  actually 
present,  (2)  what  is  true  at  all  times,  (3)  what  frequently 
or  habitually  takes  place,  (4)  what  is  to  take  place  in  the 
future,  and  (5)  it  is  used  in  describing  past  or  future  events 
as  if  occurring  at  the  time  of  the  speaking. 


Mode  and  Tense  Forms,  251 

Examples.— \  Jiear  a  voice  (action  as  present).  The  sun  gives  light 
(true  at  aU  times).  He  writes  for  the  newspapers  (habitual).  Phillips 
speaks  in  Boston  to-morrow  night  (future).  He  mounts  the  scaffold  ; 
the  executioners  approach  to  bind  him  ;  he  struggles,  resists,  etc.  (past 
events  pictured  to  the  imagination  as  present).  The  clans  of  Culloden 
are  scattered  in  fight  ;  they  rally,  they  bleed,  etc.  (future  events  now 
seen  in  vision). 

The  Past  Tense  may  express  (1)  simply  past  action  or 
being,  (2)  a  past  habit  or  custom,  (3)  a  future  event,  and  (4) 
it  may  refer  to  present  time. 

Examples.— Th&  birds  sang  (simply  past  action).  He  wrote  for  the 
newspapers  (past  habit).  If  I  should  go,  you  would  miss  me  (future 
events).    If  he  were  here,  he  would  enjoy  this  (refers  to  present  time). 

The  Future  Tense  may  express  (1 )  simply  future  action 
or  being,  (2)  a  habit  or  custom  as  future  or  as  indefinite  in 
time. 

Examples. — I  shall  write  soon  (simply  future  action).  He  loiU  sit 
there  by  the  hour  (indefinite  in  time). 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  expresses  (1)  action  or  being 
as  completed  in  present  time  (i.e.,  a  period  of  time — an  hour, 
a  year,  an  age — of  which  the  present  forms  a  part),  and  (2) 
action  or  being  to  be  completed  in  a  future  period. 

Examples.— Corner  Tms  written  poems  (the  period  of  time  affected  by 
this  completed  action  embraces  the  present).  The  cock  shall  not  crow 
till  thou  hast  denied  me  thrice  (action  completed  in  a  future  period). 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  expresses  (1)  action  or  being  as 
completed  at  some  specified  past  time,  and  (2)  in  a  condi- 
tional or  hypothetical  clause  it  may  express  past  time. 

Examples.— 1  had  seen  him  when  I  met  you  (action  completed  at  a 
specified  past  time).  If  I  had  had  time,  I  should  hwoe  written  (I  AacZ  not 
time — I  did  not  write). 


252  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  expresses  an  action  as  com- 
pleted at  some  specified  future  time. 
Example.— \.  shall  have  seen  him  by  to-morrow  noon. 

Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said  above  about  the  meaning  of  the 
tense  forms,  and  describe  carefully  the  time  expressed  by  each  of  the 
following  verbs : — 

1.  I  go  to  the  city  to-morrow.  2.  The  village  master  taught  his  little 
school.  3.  Plato  reasons  well.  4.  A  triangle  has  three  sides.  5.  To- 
morrow is  the  day  appointed.  6.  Moses  has  told  many  important  facts. 
7.  The  ship  sails  next  week.  8.  She  sings  well.  9.  Cicero  has  written 
orations.  10.  He  would  sit  for  hours  and  watch  the  smoke  curl  from 
his  pipe.  11.  You  may  hear  when  the  next  mail  arrives.  12.  Had  I 
known  this  before,  I  could  have  saved  you  much  trouble.  13.  He  will 
occasionally  lose  his  temper.  14.  At  the  end  of  this  week  I  shall  have 
been  in  school  four  years.  15.  If  I  were  you,  I  would  try  that.  16.  He 
will  become  discouraged  before  he  has  thoroughly  tried  it.  17.  She 
starts,  she  moves,  she  seems  to  feel  the  thrill  of  life  along  her  keel. 


LESSOU  I3i. 


PARSING. 

Direction. — Select  and  pa/rse,  according  to  the  Model  below,  the 
verbs  in  the  sentences  of  Lesson  42.  For  the  agreement  of  verbs,  see 
Less.  142. 

Model  for  Written  i^arsing— Verbs.— The  Yankee,  selling  his  farm, 
wanders  away  to  seek  new  lands. 

CLASSIFICATION. 


Verbs. 

*  selling 
wanders 

♦  seek 


Kind. 
Pr.Par.,Ir,,Tr. 
Reg.,  Int. 
Inf.,  It.,  Tr. 


MODIFICATIONS. 

SYNTAX. 

Voice. 
Ac. 

Ac. 

Mode. 
Ind. 

Tense. 
Pres. 

Num. 
Sing. 

Per. 
SdT 

Mod.  of  TanTcee. 
Pred.  of       " 
Prin.  word  in  phrase 
Mod.  of  wanders. 

*  Participles  and  infinitives  have  no  subject,  and,   consequently,  no  person  or 
number. 


Parsing. 


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254  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LEiiOII    44©. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    MODE    AND    TENSE 
FORMS. 

Caution.— Be  careful  to  give  every  verb  its  proper  form 
and  meaning. 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons : — 
1.  I  done  it  myself.     3.  He  throwed  it  into  the  river,  for  I  seen  him 

him  when  he  done  it.    3.  She  sets  by  the  open  window  enjoying  the 

scene  that  lays  before  her. 

Explanation. — Lay  (to  place)  is  transitive,  lie  (to  rest)  is  intran- 
sitive ;  set  (to  place)  is  transitive,  sit  (to  rest)  is  intransitive.  Set  in 
some  of  its  meanings  is  intransitive. 

4.  The  tide  sits  in.  5.  Gro  and  lay  down.  6.  The  sun  sits  in  the 
west.  7.  I  remember  when  the  corner  stone  was  lain.  8.  Sit  the 
plates  on  the  table.  9.  He  sat  out  for  London  yesterday.  10.  Your  dress 
sets  well.  11.  The  bird  is  setting  on  its  eggs.  12.  I  laid  there  an  hour. 
13.  Set  down  and  talk  a  little  while.  14.  He  has  laid  there  an  hour. 
15.  I  am  setting  by  the  river.  16.  He  has  went  and  done  it  without 
my  permission.  17.  He  flew  from  justice.  18.  Some  valuable  land 
was  overflown.  19.  She  come  just  after  you  left.  30.  They  sung  a 
new  tune  which  they  had  not  sang  before.  21.  The  water  I  drunk  there 
was  better  than  any  that  I  had  drank  before.  22.  The  leaves  had 
fell.  23.  I  had  rode  a  short  distance  when  the  storm  begun  to  gather. 
24.  I  found  the  water  froze.  25.  He  raised  up.  26.  He  run  till  he 
became  so  weary  that  he  was  forced  to  lay  down.  37.  I  knowed  that 
it  was  so,  for  I  seen  him  when  he  done  it.  38.  I  had  began  to  think 
that  you  had  forsook  us.  39.  I  am  afraid  that  I  cannot  learn  him  to 
do  it.  30.  I  guess  that  I  will  stop.  31.  Tell  me  where  you  live,  and 
I  will  come  to  your  house  to-morrow.  32.  I  expect  that  he  has  gone 
to  Boston.  33.  There  ain't  any  use  of  trying.  34.  I  have  got  no 
mother.     35.  Can  I  speak  to  you  ?    36.  He  had  ought  to  see  him. 

Explanation. — As  ought  is  never  a  participle,  it  cannot  be  used  after 
had  to  form  a  compound  tense. 


Construction  of  Mode  and  Tense  Forms.         255 

Caution,— K  conditional  or  a  concessive  clause  requires 
a  verb  in  the  indicative  mode  when  the  action  or  being  is 
assumed  as  a  fact,  or  when  the  uncertainty  lies  merely  in 
the  speaker's  knowledge  of  the  fact.  But  when  the  action 
or  being  is  merely  thought  of  as  a  future  contingency,  the 
subjunctive  present  is  preferred.  The  subjunctive  past  of 
the  verb  he  is  used  chiefly  to  express  a  wish  or  a  mere  sup- 
position contrary  to  the  fact. 

Examplea.—i.  If  (=  since)  it  rains,  why  do  you  go  ? 

2.  If  it  rains  (now),  I  cannot  go  out. 

3.  If  it  rain,  the  work  will  be  delayed. 

4.  If  my  friend  icere  here,  he  would  enjoy  this. 

Explanation. — In  (1)  the  raining  is  assumed  as  a  fact.  In  (2)  there 
is  a  mere  uncertainty  of  knowledge.  It  either  rains  or  it  does  not  rain 
— the  speaker  is  uncertain  which  is  the  fact.  In  (3)  no  existing  fact  is 
referred  to  ;  the  raining  is  merely  thought  of  as  a  future  contingency. 
In  (4)  a  mere  supposition,  contrary  to  the  fact,  is  made.  My  friend's 
not  being  here  is  clearly  implied. 

Remarks.— When  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  the  indicative  or  the 
subjunctive  mode  is  required,  use  the  indicative. 

The  present  subjunctive  forms  may  be  treated  as  infinitives  used  to 
complete  omitted  auxiliaries  ;  as,  If  it  (should)  rain,  the  work  will  be 
delayed,  Till  one  greater  man  (shall)  restore  us,  etc.  This  will  often 
serve  as  a  guide  in  distinguishing  the  indicative  from  the  subjunctive 
mode. 

If,  though,  lest,  unless,  etc.,  are  usually  spoken  of  as  signs  of  the  sub- 
junctive mode,  but  they  are  now  more  frequently  followed  by  the  in- 
dicative than  by  the  subjunctive  mode. 

Direction.— t7M«a/2/  the  mode  of  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences : — 

1.  If  this  were  so,  the  diflSculty  would  vanish.  2.  If  he  was  there, 
I  did  not  see  him.  3.  If  to-morrow  le  fine,  I  will  walk  with  you. 
4.  Though  this  seems  improbable,  it  is  true.  5.  If  my  friend  is  in  town, 
he  will  call  this  evening.     6.  If  he  ever  comes,  we  shall  know  it. 


256  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Explanation. — In  (6)  and  (7)  the  coming  is  referred  to  as  a  fact  to 
be  decided  in  future  time. 

7.  If  he  comes  by  noon,  let  me  know.  8.  The  ship  leaps,  as  it  were^ 
from  billow  to  billow.  9.  Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob. 
10.  If  a  pendulum  is  drawn  to  one  side,  it  will  swing  to  the  other. 

Explanation.  —Be  is  often  employed  in  making  scientific  statements 
like  the  preceding,  and  may  therefore  be  allowed  ;  but  there  is  nothing 
in  the  nature  of  the  case  to  justify  such  usage.  If  a  pendulum  is  drawn 
—  Whenever  a  pendulum  is  drawn. 

11.  I  wish  that  I  were  a  musician.  12.  Were  I  disposed,  I  could 
not  gratify  you.  13.  This  sword  shall  end  thee  unless  thou  yield. 
14.  Govern  well  thy  appetite,  lest  sin  surprise  thee.  15.  I  know  not 
whether  it  is  so  or  not. 

Direction. — Supply  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  a  verb  in  the 
indicative  or  the  subjunctive  mode,  and  give  a  reason  for  your  choice  : — 

1.  I  wish  it in  my  power  to  help  you.     2.  I  tremble  lest  he 

.  3.  If  he guilty,  the  evidence  does  not  show  it.  4.  He  de- 
serves our  pity,  unless  his  tale a  false  one.     5.  Though  he 

there,  I  did  not  see  him.     6.  If  he but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

7.  If  I he,  I  would  do  differently.     8.  If  ye men,  fight. 


CONSTRUCTION  OF   MODE   AND  TENSE 
FORMS— CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Be  careful  to  employ  the  tense  forms  of  the 
different  modes  in  accordance  with  their  meaning,  and  in 
such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  proper  order  of  time. 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons : — 
1.  That  custom  has  been  formerly  quite  popular.     2.  Neither  will 
they  be  persuaded,  though  one  rose  from  the  dead.     3.  He  that  was 
dead  sat  up  and  began  to  speak.     4.  A  man  bought  a  horse  for  one 


Construction  of  Mode  and   Tense  Forms — Cont.    257 

hundred  dollars  ;  and,  after  keeping  it  three  months,  at  an  expense  of 
ten  dollars  a  month,  he  sells  it  for  two  hundred  dollars.  What  per 
cent,  does  he  gain  ?  5.  I  should  say  that  it  was  an  hour's  ride.  6.  If 
1  had  have  seen  him,  I  should  have  known  him.  7.  I  wish  1  was  in 
Dixie.  8.  We  should  be  obliged  if  you  will  favor  us  with  a  song. 
9.  I  intended  to  have  called. 

Explanation. — This  is  incorrect  ;  it  should  be,  /  intended  to  caU. 
One  does  not  intend  to  do  what  is  already  completed. 

Remark.— Verbs  of  commanding,  desiring,  expecting,  hoping,  intend- 
ing, permitting,  etc.,  are  followed  by  verbs  denoting  present  or  future 
time. 

The  present  infinitive  expresses  an  action  as  present  ov  future,  and 
the  present  perfect  as  completed,  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  principal 
verb.  I  am  glad  to  haxie  met  you  is  correct,  because  the  meeting  took 
place  hefore  the  time  of  'being  glad. 

I  ought  to  have  gone  is  exceptional.  Ought  has  no  past  tense  form, 
and  so  the  present  perfect  infinitive  is  used  to  make  the  ek^.:.oj*jr  ^efer 
to  past  time. 

10.  We  hoped  to  have  seen  you  before.  11.  I  should  not  have  let 
you  eaten  it.  12.  I  should  have  liked  to  have  seen  it.  13.  He  would 
not  have  dared  done  that.  14.  You  ought  to  have  helped  me  to  have 
done  it.  15.  We  expected  that  he  would  have  arrived  last  night. 
16.  The  experiment  proved  that  air  had  weight. 

Remark. — What  is  true  or  false  at  all  times  is  generally  expressed  in 
the  present  tense,  whatever  tense  precedes. 

There  seems  to  be  danger  of  applying  this  rule  too  rigidly.  When  a 
speaker  does  not  wish  to  vouch  for  the  truth  of  the  general  proposition, 
he  may  use  the  past  tense,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  an  indirect 
quotation  ;  as.  He  said  that  iron  was  the  most  valuable  of  metals.  The 
tense  of  the  dependent  verb  is  sometimes  attracted  into  that  of  'the 
principal  verb  ;  as,  I  knew  where  the  place  was. 

17.  I  had  never  known  before  how  short  life  really  was.  18.  We  then 
fell  into  a  discussion  whether  there  is  any  beauty  independent  of  utility. 
The  General  maintained  that  there  was  not ;  Dr.  Johnson  maintained 
that  there  was.  19.  I  have  already  told  you  that  I  was  a  gentleman. 
20.  Our  fathers  held  that  all  men  were  created  equal. 
17 


258  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

Caution, — Use  will  and  would  whenever  the  subject 
names  the  one  whose  will  controls  the  action,  and  shall  and 
sJwuld  whenever  the  one  named  by  the  subject  is  under  the 
control  of  external  influence. 

Remark.— The  original  meaning  of  sJiall  {to  owe,  to  he  obliged)  and 
will  {to  determine)  gives  us  the  real  key  to  their  proper  use. 

The  only  case  in  which  some  trace  of  the  original  meaning  of  these 
auxiliaries  cannot  be  found  is,  when  the  subject  of  will  names  something 
incapable  of  volition  ;  as,  The  icind  will  blow.  Even  this  may  be  a 
kind  of  personification. 

Example s.~l  shall  go^  You  will  go.  He  will  go.  These  are  the  proper 
forms  to  express  mere  futurity,  but  even  here  we  can  trace  the  original 
meaning  of  shall  and  will.  In  the  first  person  the  speaker  avoids  egotism 
by  referring  to  the  act  as  an  obligation  or  duty  rather  than  as  something 
under  the  control  of  his  own  will.  In  the  second  and  third  persons  it  is 
more  courteous  to  refer  to  the  will  of  others  than  to  their  duty. 

I  will  go.  Here  the  action  is  under  the  control  of  the  speaker's  will. 
He  either  promises  or  determines  to  go. 

You  shall  go,  He  shall  go.  Here  the  speaker  either  promises  the  going 
or  determines  to  compel  these  persons  to  go  ;  in  either  case  the  actor  is 
under  some  external  influence. 

Shall  I  go  9  Here  the  speaker  puts  himself  under  the  control  of  some 
external  influence — the  will  of  another. 

Will  ^go? — i.  e.,  Is  it  my  will  to  go? — is  not  used  except  to 
repeat  another's  question.  It  would  be  absurd  for  one  to  ask  what  his 
own  will  is. 

Shall  you  gof  Ans.  I  shall.  Will  you  go  f  Ans.  I  will.  Shall  he  go? 
Ans.  He  shall.  Will  he  go  f  Ans.  He  will.  The  same  auxiliary  is  used 
in  the  question  that  is  used  in  the  answer. 

No  difficulty  shall  hinder  me.  The  difficulty  that  might  do  the 
hindering  is  not  to  be  left  to  itself,  but  is  to  be  kept  under  the  control 
of  the  speaker. 

He  says  that  he  shall  go.  He  says  that  he  will  go.  Change  the  indirect 
quotations  introduced  by  that  to  direct  quotations,  and  the  application 
of  the  Caution  will  be  apparent. 

You  will  see  that  ray  horse  is  at  the  door  by  nine  o'clock.     This  is 


Co7istruction  of  Mode  arid  Tense  Forms — Cont.    259 

only  an  apparent  exception  to  the  rule.  A  superior  may  courteously 
avoid  the  appearance  of  compulsion,  and  refer  to  his  subordinate's 
willingness  to  obey. 

They  knew  that  I  should  he  there,  and  that  he  wovld  he  there.  The 
same  principles  apply  to  should  and  would  that  apply  to  shall  and  will. 
In  this  example  the  events  are  future  as  to  past  time  ;  making  them 
future  as  to  present  time,  we  have.  They  know  that  I  shaU  he  there,  and 
that  he  will  be  there. 

My  friend  said  that  he  should  not  set  out  to-morrow.  Change  the 
indirect  to  a  direct  quotation,  and  the  force  of  should  will  be  seen. 

Direction. — Assign  a  reason  for  the  use  of  shall  or  will  in  each 
of  the  following  sentences  : — 

1 .  Hear  me,  for  I  will  speak.  2.  If  you  will  call,  I  shall  be  happy 
to  accompany  you.  3.  Shall  you  be  at  liberty,  to-day  ?  4.  I  shall  never 
see  him  again.  5.  I  will  never  see  him  again.  6.  I  said  that  he  should 
be  rewarded.  7.  Thou  shalt  surely  die.  8.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth, 
shall  rise  again.  9.  Though  I  should  die,  yet  will  I  not  deny  thee. 
10.  Though  I  should  receive  a  thousand  shekels  of  silver  in  mine  hand, 
yet  would  1  not  put  forth  my  hand  against  the  king's  son. 

J^ixection.— Fill  each  of  the  following  blanks  with  shall,  will, 
should,  or  would,  and  give  the  reasons  for  your  choice  : — 

1.  He  knew  who betray  him.     2.  I be  fatigued  if  I  had 

walked  so  far.     3.  You  did  better  than  I have  done.     4.  If  he 

come  by  noon, you  be  ready  ?    5.  They  do  me  wrong,  and  I 

not  endure  it.     6.  I be  greatly  obliged  if  you do  me  the 

favor.     7.  If  I say  so,  I be  guilty  of  falsehood.     8.  You 

be  disappointed  if  you see  it.     9. he  be  allowed  to  go  on  ? 

10. you  be  unhappy,  if  I  do  not  come  ? 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons : — 
1.  Where  will  I  leave  you  ?  2.  Will  I  be  in  time  ?  3.  It  was  re- 
quested that  no  person  would  leave  his  seat.  4.  They  requested  that 
the  appointment  would  be  given  to  a  man  who  should  be  known  to  his 
party.  5.  When  will  we  get  through  this  tedious  controversy  ?  6.  I 
think  we  will  have  rain. 


26o  Modifications  of  the  Paris  of  Speech. 


CONSTRUCTION    OF   NUMBER   AND    PERSON 
FORMS. 

Agreement.  —Verbs— Pronouns. 

Caution, — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person. 

Remark. — Practically,  this  rule  applies  to  but  few  forms.  Are  and 
were  are  the  only  plural  forms  retained  by  the  English  verb.  In  the 
common  style,  most  verbs  have  one  person  form,  made  by  adding  s  or 
es  {has,  in  the  present  perfect  tense,  is  a  contraction  of  the  indicative 
present — /ia{ve)s).  The  verb  be  has  am  (first  person)  and  is  (third 
person). 

In  the  solemn  style,  the  second  person  singular  takes  the  ending  est, 
st,  or  t,  and,  in  the  indicative  present,  the  third  person  singular  adds 
eth.     (See  Lessons  134  and  135.) 

Caution. — A  collective  noun  requires  a  verb  in  the  plural 
when  the  individuals  in  the  collection  are  thought  of  ;  but, 
when  the  collection  as  a  whole  is  thought  of,  the  verb  should 
be  singular. 

Examples. — 1.  The  multitude  were  of  one  mind.  2.  The  mvltitude 
was  too  large  to  number.  3.  A  number  were  inclined  to  turn  back. 
4.  The  number  present  was  not  ascertained. 

Caution,— ^hQn  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  con- 
nected by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural. 

Exceptions. — 1.  When  the  connected  subjects  are  different  names  of 
the  same  thing,  or  when  they  name  several  things  taken  as  one  whole, 
the  verb  must  be  singular  ;  as,  My  old  friend  and  schoolmate  is  in  town. 
Bread  and  milk  is  excellent  food. 

2.  When  singular  subjects  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no,  they 


Construction  of  Number  and  Person  Forms.     261 

are  taken  separately  and  require  a  singular  verb ;  as,  Every  mariy  woman, 
and  child  was  lost. 

3.  When  the  subjects  are  emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb  agrees 
with  the  first  and  is  understood  with  the  second  ;  as,  Time,  and 
patience  also,  is  needed.  (The  same  is  true  of  subjects  connected  by 
as  well  as  ;  as,  Tim£,  as  well  as  patience,  is  needed.) 

4.  When  one  of  the  subjects  is  affirmative  and  the  other  negative,  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  affirmative  ;  as,  Books,  and  not  pleasure,  occupy 
his  time. 

5.  When  several  subjects  follow  the  verb,  each  subject  may  be 
emphasized  by  making  the  verb  agree  with  that  which  stands  nearest ; 
as,  Thine  is  the  kingdom  and  the  power  and  the  glory. 

Caution.— When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  singular  subjects 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the 
singular ;  as,  Neither  poverty  nor  wealth  was  desired. 

Remark. — When  the  subjects  are  of  different  numbers  or  persons, 
the  verb  agrees  with  the  nearest ;  as,  Neither  he  nor  th£y  were  satisfied. 

When  a  singular  and  a  plural  subject  are  used,  the  plural  subject  is 
generally  placed  next  to  the  verb. 

In  using  pronouns  of  different  persons,  it  is  generally  more  polite  for 
the  speaker  to  mention  the  one  addressed  first,  and  himself  last,  except 
when  he  confesses  a  fault,  or  when,  by  using  the  pronoun  we,  he  associ- 
ates others  with  him. 

When  the  subjects  require  different  forms  of  the^verb,  it  is  generally 
better  to  express  the  verb  with  each  subject  or  to  recast  the  sentence. 

Caution.— A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
number,  gender,  and  person ;  as.  Thou  who  writest,  he  who 
writes,  they  who  write,  etc. 

The  three  special  Cautions  given  above  for  the  agreement 
of  the  verb  apply  also  to  the  agreement  of  the  pronoun. 

Remark. — These  special  directions  for  agreement  may  be  summed  up 
in  this  :  Let  the  meaning  rather  than  the  form  control  the  agreement 
of  the  verb  and  of  the  pronoun. 


262  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

The  pronoun  you,  however,  even  when  singular  in  meaning,  requires 
a  verb  and  a  pronoun  of  the  plural  form. 

Direction. — Justify  the  use  of  the  following  italicized  verbs  and  pro- 
nouns : — 

1.  Books  is  a  noun.  2.  The  good  ar6  great.  3.  The  committee 
were  unable  to  agree,  and  they  asked  to  be  discharged.  4.  The  House 
has  decided  not  to  allow  its  members  the  privilege.  5.  Three  times 
f our  is  twelve.*  6.  Five  dollars  *«  not  too  much.  7.  Twice  as  much 
is  too  much.  8.  Two  hours  is  a  long  time  to  wait.  9.  To  relieve  the 
wretched  was  his  pride.  10.  To  profess  and  to  possess  are  two  dif- 
ferent things.  11.  Talking  and  eloquence  are  not  the  same.  12.  The 
tongs  are  not  in  t7ieir  place.  13.  Every  one  is  accountable  tor  his  own 
acts.  14.  Every  book  and  every  paper  was  found  in  its  place.  15.  Not 
a  loud  voice,  but  strong  proofs  bring  conviction.  16.  This  orator  and 
statesman  has  gone  to  his  rest.  17.  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts  "  is  7us 
most  celebrated  poetical  work.  18.  Flesh  and  Wood  hath  not  revealed 
it.  19.  The  hue  and  cry  of  the  country  pursues  him.  20.  The  second 
and  the  third  Epistle  of  John  contain  each  a  single  chapter.  21.  Man 
is  masculine  because  it  denotes  a  male.  22.  Therein  condsts  the  force 
and  use  and  nature  of  language.  23.  Neither  wealth  nor  wisdom  is  the 
chief  thing.  24.  Either  you  or  I  am  right.  25.  Neither  you  nor  he  is 
to  blame.  26.  John,  and  his  sister  also,  is  going.  27.  The  lowest 
mechanic,  as  well  as  the  richest  citizen,  is  here  protected  in  his  right. 
28.  There  are  one  or  two  reasons. f  29.  Nine  o'clock  and  forty-five 
minutes  is  fifteen  minutes  of  ten.  30.  Mexican  figures,  or  picture-writ- 
ing, represent  things,  not  words.  | 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons  : — 
1.   Fic/wa?s  are  always  plural.     2.  Plutarch's  ** Parallel  Lives"  are 

*  "  Three  times  four  is  twelve,"  and  "  Three  times  four  are  twelve  "  are  both  used, 
and  both  may  be  defended.  The  question  is  (see  Caution  for  collective  nouns),  Is  the 
number  four  thought  of  as  a  whole,  or  are  the  individual  units  composing  it  thought 
of  ?  The  expression  =  Pour  taken  three  times  is  twelve.  Times  is  a  noun  used  ad- 
verbially without  a  preposition  (see  Lesson  35). 

t  When  two  adjectives  differing  in  number  are  connected  without  a  repetition  of 
the  noun,  the  tendency  is  to  make  the  verb  agree  with  the  noun  expressed. 

X  The  verb  here  agrees  with  figures,  as  picture-writing  is  logically  explanatory  of 
figures  (see  Lesson  33). 


Construction  of  Number  and  Persofi  Forms.     263 

his  great  work.  3.  What  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ?  4.  No,  no, 
says  I.  5.  We  agree,  says  they.  6.  Where  was  you  ?  7.  Every  one 
of  these  are  good  in  their  place.  8.  Neither  of  them  have  recited  their 
lesson.  9.  There  comes  the  boys.  10.  Each  of  these  expressions  de- 
note action.  11.  One  of  you  are  mistaken.  12.  There  is  several 
reasons  for  this.  13.  The  assembly  was  divided  in  its  opinion.  14. 
The  public  is  invited  to  attend.  15.  The  committee  were  full  wlien 
this  point  was  decided.  16.  The  nation  are  prosperous.  17.  Money, 
as  well  as  men,  were  needed.  18.  Now,  boys,  I  want  every  one  of  you 
to  decide  for  themselves.  19.  Neither  the  intellect  nor  the  heart  are 
capable  of  being  driven.  20.  She  fell  to  laughing  like  one  out  of  their 
right  mind.  21.  Five  years'  interest  are  due.  22.  Three  quarters  of 
the  men  was  discharged.  23.  Nine  tenths  of  every  man's  happiness 
depend  upon  this.  24.  No  time,  no  money,  no  labor,  were  spared. 
25.  One  or  the  other  have  erred  in  their  statement.  26.  Why  are  dust 
and  ashes  proud  ?  27.  Either  the  master  or  his  servants  is  to  blame. 
28.  Neither  the  servants  nor  their  master  are  to  blame.  29.  Our  welfare 
and  security  consists  in  unity.  30.  The  mind,  and  not  the  body,  sin. 
31.  He  don't  like  it. 

To  the  Tcacfeer.— These  exercises  may  profitably  be  continued  by  requiring  the 
pupils  to  compose  sentences  illustrating  those  constructions  in  which  mistakes  are 
liable  to  be  made. 

Remark.— The  following  exceptional  forms  are  worthy  of  note  : — 
Need  and  dare,  when  followed  by  an  infinitive,  are  often  used  instead 
of  needs  and  dares ;  as,  He  need  not  do  it ;  He  dare  not  do  it. 

The  pronoun  and  the  verb  of  an  adjective  clause  relating  to  the  in- 
definite subject  it  take,  by  attraction,  the  person  and  number  of  the 
complement  when  this  complement  immediately  precedes  the  adjective 
clause  ;  as,  It  is  I  that  am  in  the  wrong  ;  It  is  thou  that  liftest  me  up  ; 
It  is  the  dews  and  showers  that  make  the  grass  grow. 


264  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


GENERAL     REVIEW 
To  the  Teacher, — See  suggestions  to  the  teacher,  page  219. 

Scheme  for  the  Verb. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 


Uses. 


Classes. 


(  To  assert  action,  being,  or  state. — Predicate  (4,  11). 
j  To  assume  action,  being,  or  state,  -j  fngnfti^eT^?' 


Form. 


Meaning. 


i  Regular  (92). 

•j  Irregular  (9'2,  132,  1.33). 

({Bedundant  and  Defective.) 

j  Transitive  (92). 
\  Intransitive  (92). 


Modifications.  ■< 


Voice. 


Mode. 


Tense. 


Nnmber. 


j  Active  (129,  130). 
\  Passive  (129,  130). 

r  Indicative  (131,  134-137). 
J   Potential  (131,  134-137). 
]  Subjunctive  (131,  134-137,  140). 
[  Imperative  (i3i,  134-137). 


Present. 
Past. 
Future. 

Present  Perfect. 
Past  Perfect. 
Future  Perfect. 


131,134-138,140. 
141. 


Singular. 
Plural. 


131,134,  135. 


Participles.-—        Glasses. 


Infinitives.- 


(  First.  ) 
\  Second.  V 
(  Third.        ) 

i  Present.  ) 

\  Past.  )■ 

(  Past  Perfect.   ) 

j  Present. 

\  Present  Perfect. 


131,  134.  135. 


131.  134-136. 


I  131, 


134,  135. 


Review  Questmts.  265 

Questions  on  the  Verb. 

1.  Define  the  verb  and  its  classes. — Less.  92,  132. 

2.  Name  and  define  the  modifications  of  the  verb. — Less.  129,  131. 

3.  Name  and  define  the  several  voices,  modes,  and  tenses. — Less. 
129,  131. 

4.  Define  the  participle  and  its  classes. — Less.  131. 

5.  Define  the  infinitive. — Less.  131. 

6.  Give  a  synopsis  of  a  regular  and  of  an  irregular  verb  in  all  the 
difl'erent  forms.— Less.  134,  135,  136,  137. 

7.  Analyze  the  different  mode  and  tense  forms,  and  give  the  func- 
tions of  the  different  tenses. — Less.  188. 

8.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  the 
mode  and  tense  forms,  and  of  the  person  and  number  forms. — Less. 
140,  141,  142. 


LESSOR  443. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  112. — What  are  Modifications  f  Have  English  words  many 
inflections  ?  Have  they  lost  any  ?  What  is  Number  f  Define  the 
singular  and  the  plural  number.  How  is  the  plural  of  nouns  regularly 
formed  ?  In  what  ways  may  the  plural  be  formed  irregularly  9 
Illustrate. 

Lesson  113. — Give  the  plural  of  some  nouns  adopted  from  other  lan- 
guages. How  do  compounds  form  the  plural  ?  Illustrate  the  several 
ways.     How  do  letters,  figures,  etc.,  form  the  plural  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  114. — Give  examples  of  nouns  having  each  two  forms  differ- 
ing in  meaning.  Some  which  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 
Some  which  have  no  plural.  Some  which  are  always  plural.  What  is 
said  of  the  number  of  collective  nouns  ? 

Lesson  116. — In  what  four  ways  may  the  number  of  nouns  be  deter- 
mined ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  117. — What  is  Gender  9  Define  the  different  genders.  What 
is  the  difference  between  sex  and  gender  9  The  gender  of  English  nouns 


266  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

follows  what  ?  Have  English  nouns  a  we'W^er/orm  f  Have  all  English 
nouns  a  masculine  and  a  feminine  form  9  In  what  three  ways  may  the 
masculine  of  nouns  be  distinguished  from  the  feminine  ?  Illustrate. 
Give  the  three  gender  forms  of  the  pronoun. 

Lesson  118. — How  is  gender  in  grammar  important  ?  When  is  the 
pronoun  of  the  masculine  gender  used  ?  When  is  the  neuter  pronoun 
it  used  ?  By  what  pronouns  are  inanimate  things  personified  ?  In 
personification,  when  is  the  masculine  pronoun  used,  and  when  the 
feminine  ?    Illustrate.     What  is  the  Caution  relating  to  gender  ? 

Lesson  119. — What  is  Person  ?  Is  the  person  of  nouns  marked  by 
form  ?  Define  the  three  persons.  When  is  a  noun  in  the  first  person  ? 
In  the  second  person  ?  What  classes  of  words  have  distinctive  per- 
son forms  ?  Why  is  person  regarded  in  grammar  ?  What  is  Case  ? 
Define  the  three  cases.  What  is  the  case  of  a  noun  used  independently? 
Of  an  explanatory  modifier  ?  Of  an  objective  complement  ?  Of 
a  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  attribute  complement  ?  Illustrate  all 
these. 

Lesson  121. — What  is  Parsing  ?    Illustrate  the  parsing  of  nouns. 


LESi©l  144. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  122. — How  many  case  forms  have  nouns,  and  what  are  they  ? 
How  is  the  possessive  of  nouns  in  the  singular  formed  ?  Of  nouns  in 
the  plural  ?  Illustrate.  What  is  the  possessive  sign  ?  To  which  word 
of  compound  names  or  of  groups  of  words  treated  as  such  is  the  sign 
added  ?  Illustrate.  Instead  of  the  possessive  form,  what  may  be 
used  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  123. — In  what  case  only,  can  mistakes  in  the  construction  of 
nouns  occur  ?    Illustrate  the  Cautions  relating  to  possessive  forms. 

Lesson  124. — What  is  Declension  ?  Decline  girl  and  tooth.  Decline 
the  several  personal  pronouns,  the  relative  and  the  interrogative. 
What  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  wholly  or  in  part  ?    Illustrate. 


Review  Questions,  267 


Lesson  125.— What  words  in  the  language  have  each  three  different 
case  forms  ?  What  are  the  nominative,  and  what  the  objective,  forms 
of  the  pronouns  ? 

Lesson  127. — What  one  modification  have  adjectives  ?  What  is 
Comparison  ?  Define  the  three  degrees.  How  are  adjectives  regularly 
compared  ?  What  are  the  Rules  for  Spelling  ?  Illustrate  them. 
How  are  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  generally  compared  ? 
How  are  degrees  of  diminution  expressed  ?  Can  all  adjectives  be  com- 
pared ?  How  are  some  adverbs  compared  ?  Illustrate  the  irregular 
comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Lesson  128. — To  how  many  things  does  the  comparative  degree  re- 
fer ?  What  does  it  imply  ?  Explain  the  ofliee  of  the  superlative. 
What  word  usually  follows  the  comparative,  and  what  the  superlative? 
Give  the  Cautions  relating  to  the  use  of  comparatives  and  superlatives, 
and  illustrate  them  fully. 

Lesson  129. — What  is  Voice?  Of  what  class  of  verbs  is  it  a  modifi- 
cation ?  Name  and  define  the  two  voices.  When  is  the  one  voice 
used,  and  when  the  other  ?  Into  what  may  the  passive  form  be  re- 
solved ?  Illustrate.  What  may  be  mistaken  for  a  verb  in  the  passive 
voice  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  130. — In  changing  a  verb  from  the  active  to  the  passive,  what 
does  the  object  complement  become  ?  How  may  an  intransitive  verb 
sometimes  be  made  transitive  ?    Illustrate. 


LEiSOli  I4§. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  lZ\.—Whd,t  is  Mode?  Define  the  four  modes.  What  is 
Tense  f  Define  the  six  tenses.  Define  the  infinitive.  Define  the  par- 
ticiple. Define  the  classes  of  participles.  What  are  the  number  and 
person  of  a  verb  ? 

Lesson  182. — What  is  Conjugation  f  Synopsis  ?  What  are  auxiliary 
verbs  ?  Name  them.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  ?  What 
are  redundant  and  what  are  defective  verbs  ? 


268  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Lesson  134. — How  many  forms  have  irregular  verbs  ?  How  many 
have  regular  verbs  ?  What  is  said  of  the  subjunctive  mode  ?  Of  to 
with  the  infinitive  ?    How  is  a  verb  conjugated  in  the  emphatic  form  ? 

Lesson  136. — How  is  a  verb  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form  ? 
How  is  a  transitive  verb  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  ?  Give  an 
example  of  a  verb  in  the  progressive  form  with  a  passive  meaning. 
What  does  the  progressive  form  denote  ?  Can  all  verbs  be  conjugated 
in  this  form  ?  Give  all  the  participles  of  the  verbs  clioose,  break,  drive, 
read,  lift. 

Lesson  137. — How  may  a  verb  be  conjugated  interrogatively  ?  Neg- 
atively ?  Illustrate.  How  may  a  question  with  negation  be  expressed 
in  the  indicative  and  potential  modes  ? 

Lesson  138. — Into  what  may  the  compound,  or  periphrastic,  forms  of 
the  verb  be  resolved  ?  Illustrate  fully.  What  is  said  of  the  participle 
in  have  written,  had  written,  etc.  ?  Analyze  may  have  been  written. 
Give  and  illustrate  the  several  uses  of  the  six  tenses. 

Lesson  140. — Give  and  correct  the  more  prominent  errors  under  the 
first  Caution.  When  does  a  conditional  or  a  concessive  clause  require 
the  verb  to  be  in  the  indicative  ?  Illustrate.  When  is  the  subjunc- 
tive preferred  ?  Illustrate.  How  is  the  subjunctive  past  of  the  verb 
be  used  ? 

Lesson  141 . — Give  and  illustrate  the  General  Caution  relating  to  mode 
and  tense  forms.  Give  the  Caution  in  regard  to  wiU  and  would,  shall 
and  should.     Illustrate  the  Caution. 

Lesson  142. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  relating  to  the  agree- 
ment of  verbs  and  pronouns.  Illustrate  the  exceptions  and  the  Re- 
marks. 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  269 


ADDITIONAL     EXAMPLES     FOR    ANALYSIS. 

It  is  thought  by  some  people  that  all  those  stars  which  you  see  glit- 
tering so  restlessly  on  a  keen,  frosty  night  in  a  high  latitude,  and  which 
seem  to  have  been  sown  broadcast  with  as  much  carelessness  as  grain 
lies  on  a  threshing-floor,  here  showing  vast  zaarahs  of  desert  blue  sky, 
there  again  lying  close,  and  to  some  eyes  presenting 

"  The  beauteous  semblance  of  a  flock  at  rest," 

are,  in  fact,  gathered  into  zones  or  strata  ;  that  our  own  wicked  little 
earth,  with  the  whole  of  our  peculiar  solar  system,  is  a  part  of 
such  a  zone  ;  and  that  all  this  perfect  geometry  of  the  heavens,  these 
radii  in  the  mighty  wheel,  would  become  apparent,  if  we,  the  specta- 
tors, could  but  survey  it  from  the  true  center  ;  which  center  may  be 
far  too  distant  for  any  vision  of  man,  naked  or  armed,  to  reach. — De 
Quin^ey. 

On  this  question  of  principle,  while  actual  suffering  was  yet  afar  off, 
they  [our  fathers]  raised  their  flag  against  a  power  to  which,  for  pur- 
poses of  foreign  conquest  and  subjugation,  Rome,  in  the  height  of  her 
glory,  is  not  to  be  compared — a  power  which  has  dotted  over  the  sur- 
face of  the  whole  globe  with  her  possessions  and  military  posts  ;  whose 
morning  drum-beat,  following  the  sun  and  keeping  company  with  the 
hours,  circles  the  earth  daily  with  one  continuous  and  unbroken  strain 
of  the  martial  airs  of  England. —  Webster. 

In  some  far-away  and  yet  undreamt-of  hour,  1  can  even  imagine  that 
England  may  cast  all  thoughts  of  possessive  wealth  back  to  the  bar- 
baric nations  among  whom  they  first  arose  ;  and  that,  while  the  sands 
of  the  Indus  and  adamant  of  Golconda  may  yet  stiffen  the  housings 
of  the  charger  and  flash  from  the  turban  of  the  slave,  she,  as  a  Chris- 
tian mother,  may  at  last  attain  to  the  virtues  and  the  treasures  of  a 
Heathen  one,  and  be  able  to  lead  forth  her  Sons,  saying, — "These  are 
my  Jewels." — Ruskin. 

And,  when  those  who  have  rivaled  her  [Athens's]  greatness  shall  have 
shared  her  fate  ;  when  civilization  and  knowledge  shall  have  fixed  their 
abode  in  distant  continents  ;  when  tbe  scepter  shall  have  passed  away 
from  England  ;  when,  perhaps,  travelers  from  distant  regions  shall  in 


270  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

vain  labor  to  decipher  on  some  mouldering  pedestal  the  name  of  our 
proudest  chief,  shall  hear  savage  hymns  chanted  to  some  misshapen 
idol  over  the  ruined  dome  of  our  proudest  temple,  and  shall  see  a  single 
naked  fisherman  wash  his  nets  in  the  river  of  the  ten  thousand  masts, 
— her  influence  and  her  glory  will  still  survive,  fresh  in  eternal  youth, 
exempt  from  mutability  and  decay,  immortal  as  the  intellectual  prin- 
ciple from  which  they  derived  their  origin,  and  over  which  they  exer- 
cise their  control. — Macaulay. 

To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 

Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 

A  various  language  ;  for  his  gayer  hours  * 

She  has  a  voice  of  gladness  and  a  smile 

And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 

Into  his  darker  musings  with  a  mild 

And  healing  sympathy,  that  steals  away 

Their  sharpness  ere  he  is  aware.     When  thoughts 

Of  the  last,  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 

Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 

Of  the  stern  agony  and  shroud  and  pall 

And  breathless  darkness  and  the  narrow  house 

Make  thee  to  shudder  and  grow  sick  at  heart, — 

Go  forth  under  the  open  sky,  and  list 

To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around — 

Earth  and  her  waters  and  the  depths  of  air — 

Comes  a  still  voice. — Bryant. 

Pleasant  it  was,  when  woods  were  green, 

And  winds  were  soft  and  low, 
To  lie  amid  some  sylvan  scene, 
Where,  the  long  drooping  boughs  between, 
Shadows  dark  and  sunlight  sheen 

Alternate  come  and  go  ; 
Or  where  the  denser  grove  receives 

No  sunlight  from  above. 
But  the  dark  foliage  interweaves 
In  one  unbroken  roof  of  leaves, 
Underneath  whose  sloping  eaves 
The  shadows  hardly  mova.— Longfellow, 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  271 

I  like  the  lad  who,  when  his  father  thought 

To  clip  his  morning  nap  by  hackneyed  praise 

Of  vagrant  worm  by  early  songster  caught, 

Cried,  "  Served  him  right  I  'tis  not  at  all  surprising  ; 

The  worm  was  punished,  sir,  for  early  rising." — Saxe, 

There  were  communities,  scarce  known  by  name 
In  these  degenerate  days,  but  once  far-famed. 
Where  liberty  and  Justice,  hand  in  hand, 
Ordered  the  common  weal ;  where  great  men  grew 
Up  to  their  natural  eminence,  and  none 
Saving  the  wise,  just,  eloquent,  were  great ; 
Where  power  was  of  God's  gift  to  whom  he  gave 
Supremacy  of  merit — the  sole  means 
And  broad  highway  to  power,  that  ever  then 
Was  meritoriously  administered. 
Whilst  all  its  instruments,  from  first  to  last, 
The  tools  of  state  for  service  higii  or  low, 
Were  chosen  for  their  aptness  to  those  ends 
Which  virtue  meditates. — Henry  Taylor, 

Stranger,  these  gloomy  boughs 
Had  charms  for  him  ;  and  here  he  loved  to  sit. 
His  only  visitants  a  straggling  sheep. 
The  stone-chat,  or  the  glancing  sand-piper  ; 
And  on  these  barren  rocks,  with  fern  and  heath 
And  juniper  and  thistle  sprinkled  o'er, 
Fixing  his  downcast  eye,  he  many  an  hour 
A  morbid  pleasure  nourished,  tracing  here 
An  emblem  of  his  own  unfruitful  life  ; 
And,  lifting  up  his  head,  he  then  would  gaze 
On  the  more  distant  scene, — how  lovely  'tis 
Thou  seest, — and  he  would  gaze  till  it  became 
Far  lovelier,  and  his  heart  could  not  sustain 
The  beauty,  still  more  beauteous. —  Wordsworth. 

But,  when  the  next  sun  brake  from  underground, 
Then,  those  two  brethren  slowly  with  bent  brows 
Accompanying,  the  sad  chariot- bier 


2/2         Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

Past  like  a  shadow  thro'  the  field,  that  shone 

Full-summer,  to  that  stream  whereon  the  barge, 

Pall'd  all  its  length  in  blackest  samite,  lay. 

There  sat  the  life-long  creature  of  the  house, 

Loyal,  the  dumb  old  servitor,  on  deck, 

Winking  his  eyes,  and  twisted  all  his  face. 

So  those  two  brethren  from  the  chariot  took 

And  on  the  black  decks  laid  her  in  her  bed, 

Set  in  her  hand  a  lily,  o'er  her  hung 

The  silken  case  with  braided  blazonings. 

And  kiss'd  her  quiet  brows,  and,  saying  to  her, 

*'  Sister,  farewell  forever,"  and  again, 

"  Farewell,  sweet  sister,"  parted  all  in  tears. — Tenyiyson. 

Good  name  in  man  and  woman,  dear  my  lord, 

Is  the  immediate  jewel  of  their  souls. 

Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash  ;  'tis  something,  nothing; 

'Twas  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands  : 

But  he  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name 

Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him. 

And  makes  me  poor  indeed. — Shakespeare. 

When  I  consider  how  my  light  is  spent 

Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 

And  that  one  talent,  which  is  death  to  hide, 

Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  moi-e  bent 

To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 

My  true  account,  lest  he,  returning,  chide, — 

*'  Doth  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied  ?" 

I  fondly  ask  :  but  Patience,  to  prevent 

That  murmur,  soon  replies,  '*  God  doth  not  need 

Either  man's  work  or  his  own  gifts  ;  who  best 

Bear  his  mild  yoke,  they  serve  him  best :  his  state 

Is  kingly  ;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed, 

And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest  ; 

They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait." 

— Milton. — Sonnet  on  his  Blindness. 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  273 

Ah  !  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  when  from  East  and  from  West, 
From  North  and  from  South  come  the  pilgrim  and  guest  ; 
When  the  gray-haired  New-Englander  sees  round  his  board 
The  old  broken  links  of  affection  restored  ; 
When  the  care-wearied  man  seeks  his  mother  once  more, 
And  the  worn  matron  smiles  where  the  girl  smiled  before, — 
What  moistens  the  lip,  and  what  brightens  the  eye  ? 
What  calls  back  the  past  like  the  rich  pumpkin-pie  ? 

—  ^tiiUier, 
That  orbed  maiden  with  white  fire  laden. 

Whom  mortals  call  the  moon, 
Glides  glimmering  o'er  my  fleece-like  floor. 

By  the  midnight  breezes  strewn  ; 
And  wherever  the  beat  of  her  unseen  feet, 

Which  only  the  angels  hear, 
May  have  broken  the  woof  of  my  tent's  thin  roof, 

The  stars  peep  behind  her  and  peer  ; 
And  I  laugh  to  see  them  whirl  and  flee 

Like  a  swarm  of  golden  bees, 
When  I  widen  the  rent  in  my  wind-built  tent, 

Till  the  calm  river,  lakes,  and  seas. 
Like  strips  of  the  sky  fallen  through  me  on  high. 
Are  each  paved  with  the  moon  and  these. 

—8heUey. — TJie  Cloud. 

Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening's  close, 
Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose. 
There,  as  I  passed  with  careless  steps  and  slow. 
The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below  ; 
The  swain  responsive  as  the  milk-maid  sung. 
The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young. 
The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool. 
The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school. 
The  watch-dog's  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering  wind, 
And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind, — 
These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade, 
And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

— Goldsmith. 
18 


274  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 

To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell, 

To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scene, 

Where  things  that  own  not  man's  dominion  dwell, 

And  mortal  foot  hath  ne'er  or  rarely  been  ; 

To  climb  the  trackless  mountain  all  unseen, 

With  the  wild  flock  that  never  needs  a  fold  ; 

Alone  o'er  steeps  and  foaming  falls  to  lean  : — 

This  is  not  solitude  ;  'tis  but  to  hold 

Converse  with  nature's  charms,  and  view  her  stores  unrolled. 

— Byron, 

The  drawbridge  dropped  with  a  surly  clang, 
And  through  the  dark  arch  a  charger  sprang, 
Bearing  Sir  Launfal,  the  maiden  knight^ 
In  his  gilded  mail,  that  flamed  so  bright 
It  seemed  the  dark  castle  had  gathered  all 
Those  shafts  the  fierce  sun  had  shot  over  its  waU 
In  his  siege  of  three  hundred  summers  long, 
And,  binding  them  all  in  one  blazing  sheaf, 
Had  cast  them  forth  ;  so,  young  and  strong. 
And  lightsome  as  a  locust  leaf, 
Sir  Launfal  flashed  forth  in  his  unscarred  mail 
To  seek  in  all  climes  for  the  Holy  Grail. — Lowell. 

Be  it  a  weakness,  it  deserves  some  praise, — 

We  love  the  play-place  of  our  early  days  ; 

The  scene  is  touching,  and  the  heart  is  stone 

That  feels  not  at  the  sight,  and  feels  at  none. 

The  wall  on  which  we  tried  our  graving  skill. 

The  very  name  we  carved  subsisting  still ; 

The  bench  on  which  we  sat  while  deep  employed, 

Tho'  mangled,  hacked,  and  hewed,  not  yet  destroyed ; 

The  little  ones,  unbuttoned,  glowing  hot, 

Playing  our  games,  and  on  the  very  spot. 

As  happy  as  we  once,  to  kneel  and  draw 

The  chalky  ring  and  knuckle  down  at  taw. 

To  pitch  the  ball  into  the  grounded  hat, 

Or  drive  it  devious  with  a  dexterous  pat  ; — 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  275 

The  pleasing  spectacle  at  once  excites 
Such  recollection  of  our  own  delights 
That,  viewing  it,  we  seem  almost  t'  obtain 
Our  innocent,  sweet,  simple  years  again. — Gowper. 
To  the  JTeac/ier.— Require  the  pupils  to  change  the  poetry,  above,  into  prose. 

Considering  our  present  advanced  state  of  culture,  and  how  the  torch 
of  science  has  now  been  brandished  and  borne  about,  with  more  or  less 
effect,  for  five  thousand  years  and  upwards  ;  how,  in  these  times  espe- 
cially, not  only  the  torch  still  burns,  and  perhaps  more  fiercely  than  ever, 
but  innumerable  rush-lights  and  sulphur-matches,  kindled  thereat,  are 
also  glancing  in  every  direction,  so  that  not  the  smallest  cranny  or 
doghole  in  nature  or  art  can  remain  unilluminated, — it  might  strike 
the  reflective  mind  with  some  surprise  that  hitherto  little  or  nothing  of 
a  fundamental  character,  whether  in  the  way  of  philosophy  or  history, 
has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  Clothes.— CaWyfe. 

When  we  see  one  word  of  a  frail  man  on  the  throne  of  France 
tearing  a  hundred  thousand  sons  from  their  homes,  breaking  asunder 
the  sacred  ties  of  domestic  life,  sentencing  myriads  of  the  young  to 
make  murder  their  calling,  and  rapacity  their  means  of  support,  and 
extorting  from  nations  their  treasures  to  extend  this  ruinous  sway, 
we  are  ready  to  ask  ourselves.  Is  not  this  a  dream  ?  and,  when  the  sad 
reality  comes  home  to  us,  we  blush  for  a  race  which  can  stoop  to  such  an 
abject  lot.  At  length,  indeed,  we  see  the  tyrant  humbled,  stripped  of 
power,  but  stripped  by  those  who,  in  the  main,  are  not  unwilling  to 
play  the  despot  on  a  narrower  scale,  and  to  break  down  the  spirit  of 
nations  under  the  same  iron  sway. — Channing. 

There  are  days  which  occur  in  this  climate,  at  almost  any  season  of 
the  year,  wherein  the  world  reaches  its  perfection  ;  when  the  air,  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  the  earth  make  a  harmony,  as  if  Nature  would 
indulge  her  offspring  ;  when,  in  these  bleak  upper  sides  of  the  planet, 
nothing  is  to  desire  that  we  have  heard  of  the  happiest  latitudes,  and  we 
bask  in  the  shining  hours  of  Florida  and  Cuba  ;  when  everything  that 
has  life  gives  sign  of  satisfaction,  and  the  cattle  that  lie  on  the  ground 
seem  to  have  great  and  tranquil  thoughts. — Emerson. 

Did  you  never,  in  walking  in  the  fields,  come  across  a  large  flat 
stone,  which  had  lain,  nobody  knows  how  long,  just  where  you  found 
it,  with  the  grass  forming  a  little  hedge,  as  it  were,  all  round  it,  close 


2/6  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

to  its  edges ;  and  have  you  not,  in  obedience  to  a  kind  feeling  that 
told  you  it  had.  been  lying  there  long  enough,  insinuated  your  stick  or 
your  foot  or  your  fingers  under  its  edge,  and  turned  it  over  as  a  house- 
wife turns  a  cake,  when  she  says  to  herself,  "It's  done  brown  enough 
by  this  time"  ?  But  no  sooner  is  the  stone  turned  and  the  wholesome 
light  of  day  let  upon  this  compressed  and  blinded  community  of  creep- 
ing things  than  all  of  them  which  enjoy  the  luxury  of  legs— and  some 
of  them  have  a  good  many— rush  round  wildly,  butting  each  other  and 
everything  in  their  way,  and  end  in  a  general  stampede  for  under- 
ground retreats  from  the  region  poisoned  by  sunshine.  Next  year  you 
will  find  the  grass  growing  tall  and  green  where  the  stone  lay  ;  the 
ground-bird  builds  her  nest  where  the  beetle  had  his  hole  ;  the 
dandelion  and  the  buttercup  are  growing  there,  and  the  broad  fans  of 
insect-angels  open  and  shut  over  their  golden  disks,  as  the  rhythmic 
waves  of  blissful  consciousness  pulsate  through  their  glorified  being. — 
Holmes. 

There  is  a  different  and  sterner  path  ; — I  know  not  whether  there  be 
any  now  qualified  to  tread  it ;  I  am  not  sure  that  even  one  has  ever 
followed  it  implicitly,  in  view  of  the  certain  meagerness  of  its  temporal 
rewards,  and  the  haste  wherewith  any  fame  acquired  in  a  sphere  so 
thoroughly  ephemeral  as  the  Editor's  must  be  shrouded  by  the  dark 
waters  of  oblivion.  This  path  demands  an  ear  ever  open  to  the  plaints 
of  the  wronged  and  the  suffering,  though  they  can  never  repay  advocacy, 
and  those  who  mainly  support  newspapers  will  be  annoyed  and  often 
exposed  by  it  ;  a  heart  as  sensitive  to  oppression  and  degradation  in 
the  next  street  as  if  they  were  practiced  in  Brazil  or  Japan  ;  a  pen  as 
ready  to  expose  and  reprove  the  crimes  whereby  wealth  is  amassed 
and  luxury  enjoyed  in  our  own  country  at  this  hour  as  if  they  had 
been  committed  only  by  Turks  or  Pagans  in  .Asia  some  centuries 
2.go.—Oreeley. 

To  sweeten  the  beverage,  a  lump  of  sugar  was  laid  beside  each  cup, 
and  the  company  alternately  nibbled  and  sipped  with  great  decorum, 
until  an  improvement  was  introduced  by  a  shrewd  and  economical  old 
lady,  which  was  to  suspend  a  large  lump  directly  over  the  tea-table,  by 
a  string  from  the  ceiling,  so  that  it  could  be  swung  from  mouth  to 
mouth — an  ingenious  expedient,  which  is  still  kept  up  by  some  families 
in  Albany,  but  which  prevails  without  exception  in  Communipaw, 
Bergen,  Flatbush,  and  all  our  uneontaminated  Dutch  villages. — Irmvrj. 


COMPOSITION. 


SUMMARY  OF    RULES    FOR  CAPITAL 
LETTERS    AND    PUNCTUATION. 

Capital  Letters,  Terminal  Marks,  and  the  Comma. 

Capital  Lettei's,— The  first  word  of  (1)  a  sentence,  (2) 
a  line  of  poetry,  (3)  a  direct  quotation  making  complete 
sense  or  a  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence,  and 
(4)  phrases  or  clauses  separately  numbered  or  paragraphed 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Begin  with  a  capital 
letter  (5)  proper  names  (including  all  names  of  the  Deity), 
and  words  derived  from  them,  (6)  names  of  things  per- 
sonified, and  (7)  most  abbreviations.  Write  in  capital 
letters  (8)  the  words  I  and  0,  and  (9)  numbers  in  the  Roman 
notation.* 

Period,— Vlace  a  period  after  (1)  a  declarative  or  an  im- 
perative sentence,  (2)  an  abbreviation,  (3)  a  number  written 
in  the  Roman  notation,  and  (4)  Arabic  figures  used  to 
enumerate. 

Interrogation  Point.—Eyevj  direct  interrogative  sen- 
tence or  clause  should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point. 

JExclamation  Point, — All  exclamatory  expressions  must 
be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Comma,— Set  off  by  the  comma  (1)  a  phrase  out  of  its 
natural  order  or  not  closely  connected  with  the  word  it 
modifies  ;  (2)  an  explanatory  modifier  which  does  not  re- 

*  Small  letters  are  preferred  where  numerous  references  to  chapters,  etc.,  are  made. 


278  Composition. 


strict  the  modified  term  or  combine  closely  with  it ;  (3)  a 
participle  used  as  an  adjective  modifier,  with  the  words  be- 
longing to  it,  unless  restrictive  ;  (4)  the  adjective  clause, 
when  not  restrictive  ;  (5)  the  adverb  clause,  unless  it  closely 
follows  and  restricts  the  word  it  modifies ;  (6)  a  word  or 
phrase  independent  or  nearly  so  ;  (7)  a  direct  quotation 
introduced  into  a  sentence,  xuAq^^  formally  introduced  ;  (8) 
a  noun  clause  used  as  an  attribute  complement ;  and  (9)  a 
term  connected  to  another  by  or  and  having  the  same  mean- 
ing. Separate  by  the  comma  (10)  connected  words  and 
phrases,  unless  all  the  conjunctions  are  expressed  ;  (11)  co- 
ordinate clauses,  when  short  and  closely  connected  ;  and 
(12)  the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate,  and  other  phrases, 
when  long  or  differently  modified.  Use  the  comma  (13) 
to  denote  an  omission  of  words ;  (14)  after  as,  namely,  etc., 
introducing  illustrations;  and  (15)  when  it  is  needed  to 
prevent  ambiguity. 

Direction. — Oive  the  Rule  for  each  capital  letter  and  each  marJc  of 
punctuation  in  these  sentences^  except  the  colon,  the  semicolon,  and  the 
quotation  marks : — 

1.  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.,  three  sons  of  Catherine 
de  Medici  and  Henry  II.,  sat  upon  the  French  throne.  2.  The  pupil 
asked,  **  When  shall  I  use  0,  and  when  shall  I  use  oh  9"  3.  Purity  of 
style  forbids  us  to  use  :  1.  Foreign  words  ;  2.  Obsolete  words  ;  3.  Low 
words,  or  slang.  4.  It  is  easy,  Mistress  Dial,  for  you,  who  have  always, 
as  everybody  knows,  set  yourself  up  above  me,  to  accuse  one  of  lazi- 
ness. 5.  He  rushed  into  the  field,  and,  foremost  fighting,  fell.  6.  The 
Holy  Land  was,  indeed,  among  the  early  conquests  of  the  Saracens, 
Caliph  Omar  having,  in  637  A.  D.,  taken  Jerusalem.  7.  The  first 
maxim  among  philosophers,  and  men  of  sense  everywhere  is,  that 
merit  only,  should  make  distinctions.  8.  San  Salvador,  Oct.  12,  1492. 
9.  Some  letters  are  superfluous;  as,  c  and  q. 

10.  No  sleep  tiU  morn,  when  Youth  and  Pleasure  meet 
To  chase  the  glowing  hours  with  flying  feet  I 


Summary  of  Rules — Continued,  279 

Direction. — Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation 
in  these  sentences^  and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  and  lo  from  the  assembled  crowd 
there  rose  a  shout  prolonged  and  loud 
that  to  the  ocean  seemed  to  say 
take  her  o  bridegroom  old  and  gray 

2.  a  large  rough  mantle  of  sheepskin  fastened  around  the  loins  by  a 
girdle  or  belt  of  hide  was  the  only  covering  of  that  strange  solitary 
man  elijah  the  tishbite  3.  the  result  however  of  the  three  years'  reign 
or  tyranny  of  jas  ii  was  that  wm  of  orange  came  over  from  holland  and 
without  shedding  a  drop  of  blood  became  a  d  1688  wm  iii  of  cngland 

4.  o  has  three  sounds  :  1.  that  in  not;  3.  that  in  note;  3.  that  in  move 

5.  lowell  asks  and  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June  6.  spring  is  a  fickle 
mistress  but  summer  is  more  staid  7.  if  i  may  judge  by  his  gorgeous 
colors  and  the  exquisite  sweetness  and  variety  of  his  music  autumn 
is  i  should  say  the  poet  of  the  family  8.  new  york  apr  30  1789  9.  some 
letters  stand  each  for  many  sounds  as  a  and  0. 


LESi 

SUMMARY  OF  RULES— CONTINUED. 
Semicolon  and  Colon. 
Semicolon, — Co-ordinate  clauses,  (1)  when  slightly  con- 
nected, or  (2)  when  themselves  divided  by  the  comma, 
must  be  separated  by  the  semicolon.  Use  the  semicolon  ('-)) 
between  serial  phrases  or  clauses  having  a  common  depend- 
ence on  something  which  precedes  or  follows;  and  (4)  before 
as,  to  ivit,  namely,  i.  e.,  and  that  is,  when  they  introduce 
examples  or  illustrations. 

DixecUon.— Justify  each  cupital  letter  and  each  mark  of  punctua- 
tion {except  the  colon)  in  these  sentences  : — 

1.  It  may  cost  treasure,  and  it  may  cost  blood  ;  but  it  wiU  stand, 
and  it  will  richly  compensate  for  both.  2.  Some  words  are  delightful 
to  the  ear;  as,  Ontario,  golden,  orioie.     3.  The  shouts  of  revelry  had 


2So  Composition. 


died  away ;  the  roar  of  the  lion  had  ceased ;  the  last  loiterer  had  retired 
from  the  banquet ;  and  the  lights  in  the  palace  of  the  victor  were  extin- 
guished. 4.  Send  it  to  the  public  halls  ;  proclaim  it  there  ;  let  them 
hear  it  who  heard  the  first  roar  of  the  enemy's  cannon;  let  them  see  it 
who  saw  their  brothers  and  their  sons  fall  on  the  field  of  Bunker  Ilill : 
and  the  very  walls  will  cry  out  in  its  support. 

Direction. —  TJse  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation 
in  these  sentences^  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  all  parts  of  a  plant  reduce  to  three  namely  root  stem  and  leaf 
8.  when  the  world  is  dark  with  tempests  when  thunder  rolls  and  light- 
ning flies  thou  lookest  in  thy  beauty  from  the  clouds  and  laughest  at 
the  storm  3.  the  oaks  of  the  mountains  fall  the  mountains  themselves 
decay  with  years  the  ocean  shrinks  and  grows  again  the  moon  herself  is 
lost  in  heaven  4.  kennedy  taking  from  her  a  handkerchief  edged  with 
gold  pinned  it  over  her  eyes  the  executioners  holding  her  by  the  arms 
led  her  to  the  block  and  the  queen  kneeling  down  said  repeatedly  with 
a  firm  voice  into  thy  hands  o  lord  i  commend  my  spirit 

Colon, — Use  the  colon  (1)  between  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence when  these  parts  are  themselyes  divided  by  the  semi- 
colon, and  (2)  before  a  quotation  or  an  enumeration  of  par- 
ticulars when  formally  introduced. 

Direction. — Justify  each  capital  letter  a/nd  each  ma/rTc  of  punctua- 
tion in  these  sentences : — 

1.  You  may  swell  every  expense,  and  strain  every  effort,  still  more 
extravagantly  ;  accumulate  every  assistance  you  can  beg  and  borrow  ; 
traffic  and  barter  with  every  little,  pitiful  German  prince  that  sells  and 
sends  his  subjects  to  the  shambles  of  a  foreign  country:  your  efforts  are 
forever  vain  and  impotent.  2.  This  is  a  precept  of  Socrates  :  **  Know 
thyself." 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marlcs  of  punctuation 
in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons : — 

1.  the  advice  given  ran  thus  take  care  of  the  minutes  and  the  hours 
will  take  care  of  themselves    2.  we  may  abound  in  meetings  and  move- 


Summary  of  Rules — Continued.  28 1 

ments  enthusiastic  gatherings  in  the  field  and  forest  may  kindle  all 
minds  with  a  common  sentiment  but  it  is  all  in  vain  if  men  do  not  re- 
Lire  from  the  tumult  to  the  silent  culture  of  every  right  disposition 

Direction. —  Write  sentences  illustrating  the  several  uses  of  the  semi- 
colon, the  colony  and  the  comma. 


LISSOU  44$. 

SUMMARY  OF   RULES— CONTINUED. 

The  Dash,  Marks  of  Parenthesis,  Apostrophe,  Hyphen,  Quotation 
Marks,  and  Brackets. 

Dash, — ^Use  the  dash  where  there  is  an  omission  (1)  of 
letters  or  figures,  and  (2)  of  such  words  as  as,  namely,  or 
that  is,  introducing  illustrations  or  equiyalent  expressions. 
Use  the  dash  (3)  where  the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly, 
and  the  same  thought  is  resumed  after  a  slight  suspension, 
or  another  takes  its  place  ;  and  (4)  before  a  word  or  phrase 
repeated  at  intervals  for  emphasis.  The  dash  may  be  used 
(5)  instead  of  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  may  (6)  follow 
other  marks,  adding  to  their  force. 

Direction. — Justify  each  capital  letter  and  each  ma/rlc  of  punctuation 

in  these  sentences  : — 

1.  The  most  noted  kings  of  Israel  were  the  first  three — Saul,  David, 
and  Solomon.  3.  In  E s  xx.  1 — 18,  you  may  find  the  ten  com- 
mandments. 3.  And — "This  to  me?"  he  said.  4.  Assyria,  Greece, 
Rome,  Carthage — what  are  they  ?  5.  I  do  not  rise  to  supplicate  you 
to  be  merciful  toward  the  nation  to  which  I  belong, — toward  a  nation 
which,  though  subject  to  England,  yet  is  distinct  from  it.  6.  We 
know  the  uses — and  sweet  they  are— of  adversity. 

Direction.— f7«e  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation 
in  these  sentences^  and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  the  human  species  is  composed  of  two  distinct  races  those  who 
borrow  and  those  who  lend    2.  this  bill  this  infamous  bill  the  way  it 


282  Composition, 


has  been  received  by  the  house  the  manner  in  which  its  opponents 
have  been  treated  the  personalities  to  which  they  have  been  subjected 
all  these  things  dissipate  my  doubts  3.  during  the  winter  of  1775  6 
gen  w  n  was  besieging  b  n  4.  lord  marmion  turned  well  was  his 
need  and  dashed  the  rowels  in  his  steed 

Marks  of  Parenthesis,— M.iii:kQ  of  parenthesis  may  be 
used  to  enclose  what  has  no  essential  connection  with  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

Apostrophe,— \J&Q  the  apostrophe  (1)  to  mark  the  omis- 
sion of  letters,  (2)  in  the  pluralizing  of  letters,  figures,  and 
characters,  and  (3)  to  distinguish  the  possessive  from  other 
cases. 

Hyp7ien.—Use  the  hyphen  (-)  (1)  to  join  the  parts  of 
compound  words,  and  (2)  between  syllables  when  a  word 
is  diyided. 

Quotation  Mar7^s,—TJse  quotation  marks  to  enclose  a 
copied  word  or  passage.  If  the  quotation  contains  a  quota- 
tion, the  latter  is  enclosed  within  single  marks.  (Sec  Less. 
74.) 

Brackets.— JJse  brackets  [  ]  to  enclose  what,  in  quoting 
another's  words,  you  insert  by  way  of  explanation  or  correc- 
tion. 

Direction. — Justify  the  the  marks  of  punctuation  used  in  these  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  Luke  says,  Acts  xxi.  15,  '*  We  took  up  our  carriages  [luggage], 
and  went  up  to  Jerusalem."  2.  The  last  sentence  of  the  composition 
was,  "  I  close  in  the  words  of  Patrick  Henry,  '  Give  me  liberty,  or  give 
me  death.' "  3.  Telegraph-pole  is  a  recent  compound  ;  telegraph  is 
divided  thus  :  ttl-e-graph.  4.  The  profound  learning  of  Sir  William 
Jones  (he  was  master  of  twenty-eight  languages)  was  the  wonder  of 
his  contemporaries.  5.  By  means  of  the  apostrophe  you  know  that 
lote  in  mother^  love  Ks.  a  noun,  and  that  Vs  isn't  a  verb. 


Capital  Letters  and  Punctuation — Review.       283 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation 
in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons : — 

1.  next  to  a  conscience  void  of  offense  without  which  by  the  bye  life 
isnt  worth  the  living  is  the  enjoyment  of  the  social  feelings  3.  man 
the  life  boat  3.  dont  neglect  in  writing  to  dot  your  is  cross  your  ts 
and  make  your  7s  unlike  your  9s  and  dont  in  speaking  omit  the  As 
from  such  words  as  which  when  and  why  or  insert  rs  in  law  saw  and 
raw  4.  the  scriptures  tell  us  take  no  thought  anxiety  for  the  morrow 
5.  The  speaker  said  american  oratory  rose  to  its  high  water  mark  in 
that  great  speech  ending  liberty  and  union  now  and  forever  one  and 
inseparable. 

LESSOl  I4S, 

CAPITAL     LETTERS    AND     PUNCTUATION- 
REVIEW. 

Direction. — Give  the  reason  for  each  capital  letter  and  each  mark  of 
punctuation  in  these  sentences  : — 

1.  A  bigot's  mind  is  like  the  pupil  of  the  eye  ;  the  more  light  you 
pour  upon  it,  the  more  it  contracts.  2.  This  is  the  motto  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  :  *'The  Lord  is  my  light."  3.  The  only  fault  ever 
found  with  him  is,  that  he  sometimes  fights  ahead  of  his  orders.     4. 

The  land  flowing  with  •'  milk  and  honey"  (see  N s  xiv.  8.)  was  a 

long,  narrow  strip,  lying  along  the  eastern  edge,  or  coast,  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  consisted  of  three  divisions  ;  namely,  1.  On  the  north, 
Galilee  ;  2.  On  the  south,  Judea  ;  3.  In  the  middle,  Samaria.  5. 
"What  a  lesson,"  Trench  well  says,  *' the  word  'diligence'  con- 
tains  !  " 

6.  An  honest  man,  my  neighbor, — there  he  stands- 
Was  struck, — struck  like  a  dog,  by  one  who  wore 
The  badge  of  Ursini. 

7.  Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State  ; 
Sail  on,  0  Union,  strong  and  great. 

8.  O'Connell  asks,  "The  clause  which  does  away  with  trial  by  jury 
— what,  in  the  name  of  Heaven,  is  it,  if  it  is  not  the  establishment  of 
a  revolutionary  tribunal  ?"     9.  There  are  only  three  departments  of 


284  Composition. 


the  mind— the  intellect,  the  feelings,  and  the  will.  10.  This— trial  ! 
11.  American  nationality  has  made  the  desert  to  bud  and  blossom  as 
the  rose  ;  it  has  quickened  to  life  the  giant  brood  of  useful  arts  ;  it  has 
whitened  lake  and  ocean  with  the  sails  of  a  daring,  new,  and  lawful 
trade  ;  it  has  extended  to  exiles,  flying  as  clouds,  the  asylum  of  our 
better  liberty.  12.  As  I  saw  him  [Webster,  the  day  before  his  great 
reply  to  Col.  Hayne  of  South  Carolina]  in  the  evening,  (if  I  may  bor- 
row an  illustration  from  his  favorite  amusement)  he  was  as  uncon- 
cerned and  as  free  of  spirit  as  some  here  have  seen  him,  while  floating 
in  his  fishing-boat  along  a  hazy  shore,  gently  rocking  on  the  tranquil 
tide,  dropping  his  line  here  and  there  with  the  varying  fortune  of  the 
sport.  The  next  morning  he  was  like  some  mighty  admiral,  dark  and 
terrible,  casting  the  long  shadow  of  his  frowning  tiers  far  over  the 
sea,  that  seemed  to  sink  beneath  him  ;  his  broad  pendant  streaming  at 
the  main,  the  stars  and  stripes  at  the  fore,  the  mizzen,  and  the  peak  ; 
and  bearing  down  like  a  tempest  upon  his  antagonist,  with  all  his  can- 
vas strained  to  the  wind,  and  all  his  thunders  roaring  from  his  broad- 


To  the  Teacher.— It  further  work  in  punctuation  is  needed,  require  the  pupils  to 
justify  the  punctuation  of  the  sentences  beginning  page  269. 


QUALITIES    OF    STYLE. 

Style  is  the  manner  in  which  one  expresses  himself,  and  in  some 
respects  it  must  reflect  the  writer.  But  there  are  some  cardinal  qual- 
ities which  all  good  style  must  possess. 

I.  Perspicuity. — Perspicuity  is  opposed  to  obscurity  and  ambiguity, 
and  so  means  clearness  of  expression.  This  is  an  indispensable  qual- 
ity ;  if  the  thought  is  not  understood  or  is  misunderstood,  it  might 
as  well  have  been  left  unuttered.  Perspicuity  depends  mainly  upon 
these  few  things  :— 


Qualities  of  Style.  285 


1.  One's  Clear  Understanding  of  what  he  attempts  to  say. — You 
cannot  express  to  others  more  than  you  thoroughly  know,  or  make 
your  thought  clearer  to  them  than  it  is  to  yourself. 

2.  The  Unity  of  the  Sentence. — Many  thoughts,  or  thoughts  hav- 
ing no  natural  and  close  connection  with  each  other,  should  not  be 
crowded  into  one  sentence. 

3.  The  Use  of  the  Right  Words. — Use  such  words  as  convey  your 
thought — each  word  expressing  exactly  your  idea,  no  more,  no  less,  no 
other.  Do  not  omit  words  when  they  are  needed.  Be  cautious  in  the 
use  of  Ae,  she^  it,  and  they.  Use  simple  words,  such  as  others  can 
readily  understand,  avoiding  bookish  terms,  words  that  have  passed 
out  of  use,  and  those  that  have  no  footing  in  the  language — foreign 
terms,  words  newly  coined,  and  slang. 

4.  A  Happy  Arrangement. — The  relations  of  words  to  each  othe) 
should  be  obvious  at  a  glance.  The  sentence  should  not  need  re 
arrangement  to  disclose  the  meaning,  or  to  unite  dislocated  parts. 

n.  Energy.— By  energy  we  mean  vigor  of  expression.  In  ordinary 
discourse,  it  is  not  always  to  be  sought.  We  use  it  when  we  wish  to 
convince  the  intellect,  arouse  the  feelings,  and  take  captive  the  will- 
lead  one  to  do  something.  When  energetic,  we  select  words  for  strength, 
and  not  for  beauty  ;  choose  specific,  and  not  general,  terms  ;  use  few 
words  and  crowd  them  dense  with  thought  ;  place  subordinate  clauses 
before  the  independent,  and  the  strongest  clause  of  the  sentence,  the 
strongest  sentence  of  the  paragraph,  and  the  strongest  point  of  the  dis- 
course, last.  Energetic  thought  is  usually  charged  with  intense  feel- 
ing, and  requires  an  impassioned  delivery. 

III.  Imagery— Figures  of  Speech. — Things  stand  in  many  relations 
to  each  other,  some  of  which  are  these  :  they  resemble  each  other  in 
some  particular  ;  they  stand  one  to  another  as  part  to  a  whole,  or  as 
whole  to  a  part  ;  they  are  associated  by  having  been  so  long  together 


286  Composition. 


that  ono  suggests  the  other.  Figures  of  Speech  are  those  expressions 
in  which,  departing  from  our  ordinary  style  in,  speaking  of  things,  we 
assert  or  assume  any  of  these  relations.  Imagery  adds  beauty  to  style, 
but  it  also  makes  the  thought  clearer  and  stronger — a  diamond  brooch 
may  do  duty  as  well  as  adorn. 

A  Simile  is  a  figure  in  which  we  assert  a  resemblance  between  two 
things  otherwise  unlike  ;  as,  The  gloom  of  despondency  hung  like  a 
cloud  over  the  land. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  in  which,  assuming  the  resemblance  be- 
tween two  things,  we  bring  over  and  apply  to  one  of  them  the  term 
which  denotes  the  other  ;  as,  Who  carried  your  flag  into  the  very  chops 
of  the  British  Channel,  and  bearded  the  lion  in  his  den  ? 

A  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  in  which  the  name  of  a  part  denotes  the 
whole,  or  the  name  of  the  whole  denotes  a  part  ;  as,  All  hands  to  the 
pumps  !    The  New  World  is  geologically  the  oldest. 

A  JMetonymy  is  a  figure  in  which  the  name  of  one  thing  long  as- 
sociated with  another  is  taken  to  denote  that  other  ;  as.  Please  address 
the  chair.     One  needs  to  listen  to  the  organ  before  reading  Milton. 

TV.  Variety. — Variety  is  a  quality  of  style  opposed  to  uniformity. 
Nothing  in  discourse  pleases  more  than  light  and  shade — the  same  word 
not  appearing  with  offensive  frequency  ;  long  words  alternating  with 
short,  and  long  sentences  with  short  ;  the  natural  order  now  and  then 
yielding  to  the  transposed  ;  clauses  having  no  rigidly  fixed  position  ; 
sentences,  heavy  and  moving  slowly,  elbow  to  elbow  with  the  light  and 
tripping  ;  figures  sparkling  here  and  there  from  out  the  setting  of  plain 
language  ;  the  verb  in  the  assertive  form  frequently  giving  way  to  the 
participle  and  the  infinitive,  which  assume  ;  the  full  method  of  state- 
ment followed  by  the  contracted  ;  in  a  word,  no  one  form  or  method 
continuing  so  long  as  to  weary,  but  alternating  with  another,  and  keep- 
ing the  reader  fresh  and  fascinated  throughout. 

To  the  Teacher. — Question  the  pupils  upon  every  point  taken  up  in  this  Lesson, 
requiring  them  to  give  illustrations  where  it  is  possible. 


Perspicuity — Criticism,  287 

LESSOR  4i4. 

PERSPICUITY— CRITICISM. 

General  Direction. — In  all  your  work  in  Composition  attend  care- 
fully to  the  punctuation. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  faults,  and  recast  these  sentences,  making 
them  clear . — 

*  1.  He  was  locked  in  and  so  he  sat  still  till  the  guard  came  and  let 
him  out,  as  soon  as  he  stepped  out  on  the  ground,  he  saw  the  dead  and 
dying  laying  about  everywhere.  2.  They  used  to  ring  a  large  bell  at 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  for  us  to  get  up,  then  we  had  half  an  hour 
to  dress  in,  after  which  we  would  go  to  Chapel  exercises,  then  break- 
fast, school  would  commence  at  nine  o'clock  and  closed  at  four  in  the 
afternoon  allowing  an  hour  for  dinner  from  one  until  two  then  we 
would  resume  our  studies  until  four  in  the  afternoon.  3.  Jewelry  was 
worn  in  the  time  of  King  Pharaoh  which  is  many  thousand  years  before 
Christ  in  the  time  when  the  Israelites  loft  they  borrowed  all  the  jewels 
of  the  Egyptians  which  were  made  of  gold  and  silver.  4.  When  it  is 
made  of  gold  they  can  not  of  pure  gold  but  has  to  be  mixed  with  some 
other  metal  which  is  generally  copper  which  turns  it  a  reddish  hue  in 
some  countries  they  use  silver  which  gives  it  a  whitish  hue  but  in  the 
United  States  and  England  they  use  both  silver  and  copper  but  the 
English  coins  are  the  finest. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  faults,  and  recast  these  sentences^  mahing 
them  clear : — 
(Some  may  have  each  many  meanings  ;  give  these.) 
1.  James's  son,  Charles  I.,  before  the  breath  was  out  of  his  body 
was  proclaimed  king  in  his  stead.  2.  He  told  the  coachman  that  he 
would  be  the  death  of  him,  if  he  did  not  take  care  what  he  was  about, 
and  mind  what  he  said.  3.  Richelieu  said  to  the  king  that  Mazarir 
would  carry  out  his  policy.  4.  He  was  overjoyed  to  see  him,  and  he 
sent  for  one  of  his  workmen,  and  told  him  to  consider  himself  at  his 
service.    5.  Blake  answered  the  Spanish  priest  that  if  he  had  sent  in 

*  These  four  sentences  and  others  in  these  Lessons,  given  just  as  we  found  them, 
have  been  culled  from  school  compositions. 


288  Composition. 


a  complaint,  he  would  have  punished  the  sailors  severely  ;  but  he  took 
it  ill  that  he  set  the  Spaniards  on  to  punish  them. 

Direction. — Place,  these  subordinate  clauses  where  they  will  remove 
the  obscurity,  and  then  see  in  how  many  ways  each  sentence  can  be  ar- 
ranged : — 

1.  The  moon  cast  a  pale  light  on  the  graves  that  were  scattered 
around,  as  it  peered  above  the  horizon.  2.  A  large  number  of  seats 
were  occupied  by  pupils  that  had  no  backs.  3.  Crusoe  was  surprised 
at  seeing  five  canoes  on  the  shore  in  which  there  were  savages.  4. 
This  tendency  will  be  headed  off  by  approximations  which  will  be 
made  from  time  to  time  of  the  written  word  to  the  spoken.  5.  People 
had  to  travel  on  horseback  and  in  wagons,  which  was  a  very  slow  way, 
if  they  traveled  at  all.  6.  How  can  brethren  partake  of  their  Father's 
blessing  that  curse  each  other  ?  7.  Two  men  will  be  tried  for  crimes 
in  this  town  which  are  punishable  with  death,  if  a  full  court  should 
attend. 

Direction. — Uach  of  these  sentences  may  have  two  meanings  ;  supply 
two  ellipses,  amd  remove  the  ambiguity : — 

1.  Let  us  trust  no  strength  less  than  thine.  2.  Study  had  more  at- 
traction for  him  than  his  friend.  2.  He  did  not  like  the  new  teacher 
so  well  as  his  playmates.  4.  He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown. 
5.  Lovest  thou  me  more  than  these  ? 


LESSON  4it. 

PERSPICUITY— CRITICISM. 

Direction. — Place  these  italicized  phrases  where  they  will  remove  the 
obscurity,  and  then  see  in  how  ma/ny  ways  each  sentence  can  be  ar- 
ranged ': — 

1.  These  designs  any  man  who  is  a  Briton  in  any  situation  ought 
to  disavow.  2.  The  chief  priests,  mocking,  said  among  themselves 
with  the  scribes,  *'  He  saved,"  etc.  3.  Hay  is  given  to  horses  as 
weU  as  corn  to  distend  the  stomach.    4.  Boston  has  forty  first  class 


Perspicuity — Criticism.  289 

grammar-schools,  exclusive  of  Dorchester.  5.  He  rode  to  town,  and 
drove  twelve  cows  mi  horseback.  6.  He  could  not  face  an  enraged 
father  in  spite  of  his  effrontery.  7.  Two  owls  sat  upon  a  tree  which 
grew  near  an  old  wall  out  of  a  heap  of  rubbish.  8.  I  spent  most  on  the 
river  and  in  the  river  of  the  time  I  stayed  there.  9.  He  wanted  to  go 
to  sea,  although  it  was  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  parents,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen.  10.  1  have  a  wife  and  six  children,  and  I  have  never 
seen  one  of  them. 

Direction. — Place  these  italicized  words  and  phrases  where  they  will 
remove  ambiguity,  and  then  see  in  how  many  ways  each  sentence  can  he 
arratiged : — 

1.  In  Paris,  every  lady  in  full  dress  rides.  2.  I  saw  my  friend  when 
1  was  in  Boston  walking  down  Tremont  street.  3.  The  transfers  made, 
as  a  whole,  strengthen  rather  than  otherwise  the  new  administration. 
4.  What  is  his  coming  or  going  to  you  ?  5.  We  do  those  things  fre- 
quently which  we  repent  of  afterwards.  6.  I  rushed  out  leaving  the 
wretch  with  his  tale  half  told,  horror-stricken  at  his  crime.  7.  Ex- 
clamation points  are  scattered  up  and  down  the  page  by  compositors 
without  any  mercy.  8.  I  want  to  make  a  present  to  one  who  is  fond 
of  chickens  for  a  Christmas  gift. 

Direction. — Make  these  sentences  clear  by  using  simpler  words  and 
phrases : — 

1.  A  devastating  conflagration  raged.  2.  He  conducted  her  to  the 
altar  of  Hymen.  3.  A  donkey  has  an  abnormal  elongation  of  auricula/r 
appendages.  4.  Are  you  excavating  a  subterranean  canal?  5.  He 
had  no  capillary  substance  on  the  summit  of  his  head.  6.  He  made  a 
sad  faux  pas.  7.  A  net-work  is  anything  reticulated  or  decussated, 
with  interstices  at  equal  distances  between  the  intersections.  8.  Diligence 
is  the  sine  qua  non  of  success.  9.  She  has  donned  the  habiliments 
of  woe.  10.  The  deceased  was  to-day  deposited  in  his  last  resting-place. 
11.  The  inmates  proceeded  to  the  saTwtuary.  13.  I  have  partaken  of 
my  morning  repast.  13.  He  took  the  initiative  in  inaugurating  the 
ceremony. 

19 


290  Composition. 


LESSOII  ^§i. 

ENERGY— CRITICISM. 

"DvceoMou.—Erparud  these  brief  expressions  into  sentejices  fuU  of  long 
wordsy  and  note  the  loss  of  energy  :— 
1.  To  your  tents,  O  Israel  !    2.  Up,  boys,  and  at  them  !    3.  Indeed  I 

4.  Bah  I  5.  Don't  give  up  the  ship!  6.  Murder  will  out !  7.  Oh!  8. 
Silence  there!  9.  Hurrah!  10.  Death  or  free  speech!  11.  Rascal! 
12.  No  matter.  13.  Least  said,  soonest  mended.  14.  Death  to  the 
tyrant!  15.  I'll  none  of  it.  16.  Help,  ho!  17.  Shame  on  yon!  18. 
First  come,  first  served. 

HixecUon.— Condense  each  of  these  italicieed  expressions  into  one  or 
ttoo  words,  and  note  the  gain  : — 

1.  He  shuffled  off  this  mortal  eoU  yesterday.  2.  The  author  sur- 
passed all  those  who  were  living  at  the  same  time  with  him,  3.  To  say 
that  revelation  is  a  thing  which  there  is  no  need  of  is  to  talk  wildly.  4. 
He  departed  this  life.  5.  Some  say  that  ever  Against  that  season  comes 
wherein  our  Saviour's  birth  is  celebrated  this  bird  of  dawning  singeth 
all  night  long. 

lyiTBcUon.— Change  these  specific  words  to  general  terms,  and  note 
the  loss  in  energy  : — 

1.  Don't  fire  till  you  see  the  whites  of  their  eyes.  2.  Break  down  the 
dikes,  give  Holland  back  to  ocean.  3.  Three  hundred  men  held  the 
hosts  of  Xerxes  at  bay.     4.  T  sat  at  her  eradie,  I  followed  her  hearse. 

5.  Their  daggers  have  stabbed  CaBsar.  6.  When  Tm  mad,  I  tceigh  a  ton. 
7.  Bum  Moscow,  starve  back  the  invaders.  8.  There's  no  use  in  cry- 
ing over  spilt  milk.  9.  In  proportion  as  men  delight  in  battles  and  bull- 
fights will  they  punish  by  hanging,  burning,  and  the  rack. 

Direction. — Change  these  general  terms  to  specific  words,  and  note  the 
gain  in  energy : — 

1.  Anne  Boleyn  wa?  executed.  2.  It  were  better  for  him  that  a  heavy 
weight  were  fastened  to  him  and  that  he  were  submerged  in  the  waste  of 
waters.  3.  The  capital  of  the  chosen  people  was  destroyed  by  a  Roman 
general.    4.  Consider  the /o«)6r«  how  they  »»crea«c  in  size.    5.  C«esar 


Figures  of  Speech — Criticism.  291 

was  dain  by  the  conspirators.    6.  The  eiiies  of  the  plain  were  annihi- 
lated. 

Direction. — Arrange  th^se  words j  phrases,  and  clauses  in  the  order 
of  their  strength,  placing  tlie  strongest  la^y  and  note  the  gain  in  energy: — 

1.  The  nations  of  the  earth  repelled,  surrounded,  pursued,  and  re- 
sisted him.  2.  He  was  no  longer  consul  nor  citizen  nor  general  nor 
even  an  emperor,  but  a  prisoner  and  an  exile.  3.  I  shall  die  an  Ameri- 
can; 1  live  an  American;  I  was  bom  an  American.  4.  All  that  I  am, 
aU  that  I  hope  to  be,  and  all  that  I  have  in  this  life,  I  am  now  ready 
here  to  stake  upon  it.  5.  1  shall  defend  it  without  this  House,  in  all 
places,  and  within  this  house;  at  all  times,  in  time  of  peace  and  in 
time  of  war.  6.  We  must  fight  if  we  wish  to  be  free,  if  we  mean  to 
preserve  inviolate  our  rights,  if  we  do  not  mean  to  abandon  the 
struggle. 


LESSON  4S4. 

FIGURES    OF    SPEECH— CRITICISM. 

Direction.— JTam^  these  figures  of  speech,  and  then  recast  each  sen' 
tenee,  using  plain  language,  and  note  the  loss  ofheauty  and  force : — 

1.  Lend  me  your  ears.  2.  The  robin  knows  when  your  grapes  have 
cooked  long  enough  in  the  sun.  3.  A  day  will  come  when  bullets  and 
bombs  shall  be  replaced  by  ballots.  4.  Caesar  were  no  lion  were  not 
Romans  hinds.  5.  The  soul  of  Jonathan  was  knit  to  that  of  David. 
6.  Borrowing  duBs  the  edge  of  husbandry.  7.  He  will  bring  down  my 
gray  hairs  with  sorrow  to  the  grave.  8.  The  pen  is  mightier  than  the 
sword.  9.  If  I  can  catch  him  once  upon  the  hip,  I  will  feed  fat  the  an- 
cient grudge  I  bear  him.  10.  The  destinies  of  mankind  were  trembling 
in  the  balance,  while  de&th  feU  in  showers.  11.  O  Cassius,  you  are  yoked 
ttith  a  lamb  that  carries  anger  as  the  flint  bears  fire.  12.  Nations  shall 
beat  their  swords  into  ploughshares,  and  their  spears  into  pruning-hooks. 
13.  The  Mom  in  russet  mantle  clad  toalks  o*er  the  dew  of  yon  high  east- 
em  hill.  14.  The  air  bites  shrewdly.  15.  He  doth  bestride  the  narrow 
world  like  a  Colossus.    16.  My  Tieart  is  in  the  coflfin  there  with  Csesar. 


292  Composition, 


17.  Th^  gray-eyed  Msynx  smiles  cm.  \h^  frowning  ^i^i.  18.  The  good 
is  often  buried  with  men's  hones.  19.  Beware  of  the  lottle.  20.  All 
nations  respect  ovly  flag.  21.  I  have  no  spur  to  prick  the  sides  of  my 
intent.  22.  I  am  as  constant  as  the  northern  star.  23.  Then  hurst  his 
mighty  heart.  24.  Lentulus  returned  with  mctorious  eagles.  25. 
Death  hath  sucked  the  Jioney  of  thy  breath.  26.  Our  chains  are  forged. 
27.  I  have  hought  golden  opinions.  28.  His  words /e^^  softer  than  snows 
on  the  hrine.  29.  Nighfs  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day 
stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain  top. 

Direction. — In  the  first  four  sentences,  use  similes;  in  the  second 
four,  metaphor  s  ;  in  the  third  four,  synecdoches;  in  the  last 
four,  metonymies: — 

1.  He  flew  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow,  2.  In  battle  some  men 
are  brave,  others  are  coimrdly.  3.  His  head  is  as  full  of  plans  as  it 
can  hold.  4.  I  heard  a  loud  noise.  5.  Boston  is  the  place  where 
American  liberty  began.  6.  Our  dispositions  should  grow  mild,  as  we 
grow  old.  7.  The  stars  can  no  longer  he  seen.  8.  In  battle  some  men 
are  brave,  others  are  cowardly.  9.  We  passed  a  fleet  of  ten  ships. 
10.  English  vessels  plough  the  seas  of  the  two  hemispheres.  11.  They 
sought  the  king's  life.  12.  I  abjure  all  dwellings.  13.  His  convivial 
habits  have  been  his  ruin.  14.  Have  you  read  Lamb's  Essays? 
15.  The  water  is  boiling.  16.  We  have  prostrated  ourselves  before 
the  king. 

Direction. — The  parts  of  a  figure  should  agree,  and  should  unite  to 
form  one  whole.     Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  The  devouring  fire  uprooted  the  stubble.  2.  The  brittle  thread  of 
life  may  be  cut  asunder.  3.  All  the  ripe  fruit  of  three-score  years  was 
blighted  in  a  day.  4.  Unravel  the  obscurities  of  this  knotty  question. 
5.  We  must  apply  the  axe  to  the  fountain  of  this  evil.  6.  The  man 
stalks  into  court  like  a  motionless  statue,  with  the  cloak  of  hypocrisy  in 
his  mouth.  7.  The  thin  mantle  of  snow  dissolved.  8.  I  smell  a  rat,  I 
see  him  brewing  in  the  air  ;  but  I  shall  yet  nip  him  in  the  bud. 


Variety  in  Expression,  293 

LISSOU  mi. 

VARIETY   IN   EXPRESSION. 

Remark. — You  learned  in  Lessons  52,  53,  54,  that  the  natural  order 
may  give  way  to  the  transposed ;  in  55,  56,  that  one  kind  of  simple 
sentence  may  be  changed  to  another  ;  in  57,  that  simple  sentences  may 
be  contracted  ;  in  61,  that  adjectives  may  be  expanded  into  clauses  ;  in 
67,  that  an  adverb  clause  may  stand  before,  between  the  parts  of,  and 
after,  the  independent  clause  ;  in  68,  that  an  adverb  clause  may  be 
contracted  to  a  participle,  a  participle  phra«e,  an  absolute  phrase,  a 
prepositional  phrase,  may  be  contracted  by  the  omission  of  words,  and 
may  be  changed  to  an  adjective  clause  or  phrase  ;  in  73,  that  a  noun 
clause  as  subject  may  stand  last,  and  as  object  complement  may  stand 
first,  that  it  may  be  made  prominent,  and  may  be  contracted;  in  74, 
that  direct  quotations  and  questions  may  be  changed  to  indirect,  and 
indirect  to  direct  ;  in  77,  that  compound  sentences  may  be  formed  out 
of  simple  sentences,  may  be  contracted  to  simple  sentences,  and  may  bo 
changed  to  complex  sentences  ;  and,  in  79,  that  participles,  absolute 
phrases,  and  infinitives  may  be  expanded  into  different  kinds  of 
clauses. 

Direction. — Take  sentences  and  iUustraie  aU  these  changes. 

Direction. — Recast  these  sentenceSy  avoiding  offensive  repetitions  of  the 
same  word  or  the  same  sounds : — 

1.  We  have  to  have  money  to  have  a  horse.  2.  We  sailed  across  a 
bay  and  sailed  up  a  creek  and  sailed  back  and  sailed  in  all  about  four- 
teen miles.  3.  It  is  then  put  into  stacks,  or  it  is  put  into  bams  either 
to  use  it  to  feed  it  to  the  stock  or  to  sell  it.  4.  This  day  we  undertake 
to  render  an  account  to  the  widows  and  orphans  whom  our  decision 
will  make  ;  to  the  wretches  that  will  be  roasted  at  the  stake.  5.  The 
news  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  fought  on  the  17th  of  June  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  1775,  roused  the  patriotism  of  the  people  to  a  high 
pitch  of  enthusiasm. 

Direction. —  Using  other  words  wholly  or  in  part^  see  in  how  many 
ways  you  can  express  the  thoughts  contained  in  these  sentences  : — 
1.  In  the  profusion  and  recklessness  of  her  lies,  Elizabeth  had  no 


294  Composition, 


peer  in  England.  2.  Henry  IV.  said  that  James  I.  was  the  wisest  fool 
in  Christendom.  3.  Cowper's  letters  are  charming  because  they  are 
simple  and  natural.  4.  George  IV.,  though  he  was  pronounced  the 
first  gentleman  in  Europe,  was,  nevertheless,  a  snob. 


LEBSOfl  I §6. 

THE    PARAGRAPH. 

The  Paragraph. — ^The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  are  so  closely 
united  in  meaning  that  frequently  they  are  not  to  be  separated  from 
each  other  even  by  the  comma.  The  clauses  of  compound  sentences 
are  less  closely  united— a  comma,  a  semicolon,  or  a  colon  is  needed  to 
divide  them. 

Between  sentences  there  exists  a  wider  separation  in  meaning, 
marked  by  a  period  or  other  terminal  point.  But  even  sentences  may 
be  connected — the  bond  which  unites  them  being  their  common  rela- 
tion to  the  thought  which  jointly  they  develop.  Sentences  thus  re- 
lated are  grouped  together  and  form  what  we  call  a  Paragraph, 
marked  by  beginning  the  first  word  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  mar- 
ginal line. 

Direction. — Notice  the  facts  wMcTi  this  paragraph  contains,  and  the 
relation  to  each  other  of  the  clauses  and  the  sentences  expressing  these 
facts : — 

After  a  breeze  of  some  sixty  hours  from  the  north  and  north-west, 
the  wind  died  away  about  four  o'clock  yesterday  afternoon.  The  calm 
continued  till  about  nine  in  the  evening.  The  mercury  in  the  barome- 
ter fell,  in  the  meantime,  at  an  extraordinary  rate  ;  and  the  captain 
predicted  that  we  should  encounter  a  gale  from  the  south-east.  The 
gale  came  on  about  eleven  o'clock  ;  not  violent  at  first,  but  increasing 
every  moment. 

1.  A  breeze  from  the  north  and  north-west.     2.  The  wind  died  away. 


The  Paragraph,  295 


3.  A  calm.     4.  Barometer  fell.     5.  The  captain  predicted  a  gale.     6.  It 
came  on.     7.  It  increased  in  violence. 

Direction. — 8tate  and  number  the  facts  contained  in  the  pa/ragraph 
below : — 

I  awoke  with  a  confused  recollection  of  a  good  deal  of  rolling  and 
thumping  in  the  night,  occasioned  by  the  dashing  of  the  waves  against 
the  ship.  Hurrying  on  my  clothes,  I  found  such  of  the  passengers  as 
could  stand,  at  the  doors  of  the  hurricane-house,  holding  on,  and  look- 
ing out  in  the  utmost  consternation.  It  was  still  quite  dark.  Four  of 
the  sails  were  already  in  ribbons  :  the  winds  whistling  through  the 
cordage  ;  the  rain  dashing  furiously  and  in  torrents  ;  the  noise  and 
spray  scarcely  less  than  I  found  them  under  the  great  sheet  at  Niagara. 

Direction. —  Weave  the  facts  lelow  into  a  paragraph,  supplying  aU 
you  need  to  make  the  narrative  smooth : — 

Rip's  beard  was  grizzled.  Fowling-piece  rusty.  Dress  uncouth. 
Women  and  children  at  his  heels.  Attracted  attention.  Was  eyed 
from  head  to  foot.  Was  asked  on  which  side  he  voted.  Whether  he 
was  Federal  or  Democrat  ?  Rip  was  dazed  by  the  question.  Stared  in 
stupidity. 

Direction. —  Weave  the  facts  lelow  into  two  paragra/phs^  supplying 
what  you  need,  and  tell  what  each  is  aboui  : — 

In  place  of  the  old  tree,  there  was  a  pole.  This  was  tall  and  naked. 
A  flag  was  fluttering  from  it.  The  flag  had  on  it  the  stars  and  stripes. . 
This  was  strange  to  Rip.  But  Rip  saw  something  he  remembered. 
The  tavern  sign.  He  recognized  on  it  the  face  of  King  George.  Still 
the  picture  was  changed.  The  red  coat  gone.  One  of  blue  and  buff  in 
its  place.  A  sword,  and  not  a  scepter,  in  the  hand.  Wore  a  cocked 
hat.    Underneath  was  painted — '*  General  Washington." 


296  Composition. 


I.ESSOf<l  4§r. 

THE    PARAGRAPH. 

Direction. —  Wecme  the  facts  lelow  into  three  paragrapliSy  and  write 
on  the  margin  what  each  is  about  :— 

The  Nile  rises  in  great  lakes.  Runs  north.  Sources  two  thousand 
miles  from  Alexandria.  Receives  two  branches  only.  Runs  through 
an  alluvial  valley.  Course  through  the  valley  is  1,500  miles.  Flows 
into  the  Mediterranean.  Two  principal  channels.  Minor  outlets. 
Nile  overflows  its  banks.  Overflow  caused  by  rains  at  the  sources. 
The  melting  of  the  mountain  snows.  Begins  at  the  end  of  June. 
Rises  four  inches  daily.  Rises  till  the  close  of  September.  Subsides. 
Whole  valley  an  inland  sea.  Only  villages  above  the  surface.  The 
valley  very  fertile.  The  deposit.  The  fertile  strip  is  from  5  to  150 
miles  wide.  Renowned  for  fruitfulness.  Egypt  long  the  granary  of 
the  world.  Three  crops  from  December  to  June.  Productions — grain, 
cotton,  and  indigo. 

Direction. —  Wea/oe  these  facts  into  four  paragraphs^  writing  on  the 
margin  of  each  the  main  thought : — 

The  robin  is  thought  by  some  to  be  migratory.  But  he  stays  with 
us  all  winter.  Cheerful.  Noisy.  Poor  soloist.  A  spice  of  vulgarity 
in  him.  Dash  of  prose  in  his  song.  Appetite  extraordinary.  Eats 
his  own  weight  in  a  short  time.  Taste  for  fruit.  Eats  with  a  relish- 
ing gulp,  like  Dr.  Johnson's.  Fond  of  cherries.  Earliest  mess  of 
peas.  Mulberries.  Lion's  share  of  the  raspberries.  Angle-worms  his 
delight.  A  few  years  ago  I  had  a  grape  vine.  A  foreigner.  Shy  of 
bearing.  This  summer  bore  a  score  of  bunches.  They  secreted  sugar 
from  the  sunbeams.  One  morning,  went  to  pick  them.  The  robins 
beforehand  with  me.  Bustled  out  from  the  leaves.  Made  shrill, 
unhandsome  remarks  about  me.  Had  sacked  the  vine.  Remnant 
of  a  single  bunch.  How  it  looked  at  the  bottom  of  my  basket  I  A 
humming-bird's  egg  in  an  eagle's  nest.  Laughed.  Robins  joined  in 
the  merriment. 


Paragraphs  and  the  Theme.  T.c^'j 

LESiOli  lis. 

PARAGRAPHS  AND  THE  THEME. 

Direction. —  Weam  these  facts  into  four  paragrapTis : — 
Note  that  the  several  paragraphs  form  a  composition,  or  Theme,  the 
general  subject  of  which  is 

WouTER  Van  Twiller  (according  to  Diedrich  Knickerbocker). 

I.  Who  he  was.— Van  Twiller  was  a  Dutchman.  Born  at  Rotter- 
dam. Descended  from  burgomasters.  In  1629  appointed  governor  of 
Nieuw  Nederlandts.  Arrived  in  June  at  New  Amsterdam— New  York 
city. 

II.  Person. — Was  five  feet  six  inches  high,  six  feet  five  in  circum- 
ference. Head  spherical,  and  too  large  for  any  neck.  Nature  set  it  on 
the  back-bone.  Body  capacious.  Legs  short  and  sturdy.  A  beer- 
barrel  on  skids.  Face  a  vast,  unfurrowed  expanse.  No  lines  of  thought. 
Two  small,  gray  eyes.  Cheeks  had  taken  toll  of  all  that  had  entered 
his  mouth.     Mottled  and  streaked  with  dusky  red. 

III.  Habits. — Regular.  Four  meals  daily,  each  an  hour  long. 
Smoked  and  doubted  eight  hours.  Slept  twelve.  As  self-contained 
as  an  oyster.  Rarely  spoke  save  in  monosyllables.  But  never  said  a 
foolish  thing.  Never  laughed.  Perplexed  by  a  joke.  Conceived 
everything  on  a  grand  scale.  When  a  question  was  asked,  would  put 
on  a  mysterious  look.  Shake  his  head.  Smoke  in  silence.  Observe, 
at  length,  he  had  doubts.  Presided  at  the  council,  in  state.  Swayed 
a  Turkish  pipe  instead  of  a  sceptre.  Known  to  sit  with  eyes  closed  two 
hours.  Internal  commotion  shown  by  guttural  sounds.  Noises  of  con- 
tending doubts,  admirers  said. 

IV.  Exploits.— Settled  a  dispute  about  accounts  thus  :  sent  for 
the  parties ;  each  produced  his  account-book  ;  Van  T.  weighed  the 
books  ;  counted  the  leaves  ;  equally  heavy  ;  equally  thick  ;  made  each 
give  the  other  a  receipt ;  and  the  constable  pay  the  costs.  Demanded 
why  Van  Rensselaer  seized  Bear's  Island.  Battled  with  doubts  regard- 
ing the  Yankees.     Smoked  and  breathed  his  last  together. 


298  Composition, 


Direction. —  Weam  these  facts  into  four  paragraphs,  write  on  the 
margin  the  special  topic  of  each,  and  over  the  wliole,  what  you  think  is 
the  general  subject  of  the  Theme  : — 

The  prophets  of  Baal  accept  Elijah's  challenge.  They  dress  a  bul- 
lock. Call  on  Baal.  Are  mocked  by  Elijah.  Leap  upon  the  altar. 
Cut  themselves.  Blood.  Cry  till  the  time  of  the  evening  sacrifice. 
No  answer  by  fire.  Elijah  commands  the  people  to  come  near. 
Repairs  an  old  altar  with  twelve  stones,  one  for  each  tribe.  Digs  a 
trench.  Sacrifices.  Pours  water  three  times  upon  it.  Prays.  Fire 
falls,  consumes  flesh,  wood,  stones,  dust,  licks  up  water.  People  see 
it.  Pall  on  their  faces.  Cry  out  twice,  "The  Lord,  he  is  the  God." 
Take  the  prophets  to  the  brook  Kishon,  where  they  are  slain.  Elijah 
ascends  Mount  Carmel.  Bows  in  prayer.  * '  Go  up  now,  look  toward  the 
sea."  Servant  reports,  '*  There  is  nothing."  "  Go  again  seven  times." 
*'  Behold  there  ariseth  a  little  cloud  out  of  the  sea,  like  a  man's  hand." 
Orders  Ahab  to  prepare  his  chariot.  Girding  up  his  loins,  he  runs  be- 
fore Ahab  to  Jezreel. 


LESSOli  l§i. 

PARAGRAPHS  AND   THE   THEME. 

Direction. —  Weave  these  facts  into  as  many  pa/ragraphs  as  you  think 
there  should  he,  using  the  'caHety  of  expression  insisted  on  in  Lesson  150, 
and  write  on  the  margin  of  each  paragraph  the  special  topic,  and  over 
the  whole,  the  general  subject  of  the  Theme : — 

Fort  Ticonderoga  on  a  peninsula.  Formed  by  the  outlet  of  Lake 
George  and  by  Lake  Cham  plain.  Fronts  south  ;  water  on  three  sides. 
Separated  by  Lake  Champlain  from  Mount  Independence,  and  by  the 
outlet  from  Mount  Defiance.  Fort  one  hundred  feet  above  the  water. 
May  7,  1775,  270  men  meet  at  Castleton,  Vermont.  All  but  46,  Green 
Mountain  boys.  Meet  to  plan  and  execute  an  attack  upon  Fort  T. 
Allen  and  Arnold  there.  Each  claims  the  command.  Question  left 
to  the  officers.  Allen  chosen.  On  evening  of  the  9th,  they  reach  the 
lake.  Difficulty  in  crossing.  Send  for  a  scow.  Seize  a  boat  at  anchor. 
Search,  and  find  small  row  boats.    Only  83  able  to  cross.    Day  is 


Paragraphs  and  the  Theme,  299 

dawning  when  these  reach  the  shore.  Not  prudent  to  wait.  Alien 
orders  all  who  will  follow  him  to  poise  their  firelocks.  Every  man 
responds.  Nathan  Beman,  a  lad,  guides  them  to  the  fort.  Sentinel 
snaps  his  gun  at  A.  Misses  fire.  Sentinel  retreats.  They  follow. 
Rush  upon  the  parade  ground.  Form.  Loud  cheer.  A.  climbs  the 
stairs.  Orders  La  Place,  it  is  said,  in  the  name  of  the  great  Jehovah 
and  the  Continental  Congress,  to  surrender.  Capture  48  men.  120 
cannon.  Used  next  winter  at  the  siege  of  Boston.  Several  swords  and 
howitzers,  small  arms,  and  ammunition. 

Direction. — These  facts  are  thrown  together promiscuoudy.  Classify 
them  as  they  seem  to  you  to  be  related.  Determine  th^  number  of 
paragraphs  and  their  order,  and  then  do  as  directed  above: — 

Joseph  was  Jacob's  favorite.  Wore  fine  garments.  One  day  was 
sent  to  inquire  after  the  other  sons.  They  were  at  a  distance,  tending 
the  flocks.  Joseph  used  to  dream.  They  saw  him  coming.  Plotted 
to  kill  him.  In  one  dream  his  brothers'  sheaves  bowed  to  his.  In  an- 
other the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  bowed  to  him.  Plotted  to  throw  his 
body  into  a  pit.  Agreed  to  report  to  their  father  that  some  beast  had 
devoured  him.  Joseph  foolishly  told  these  to  his  brothers.  Hated 
him,  because  of  the  dreams  and  their  father's  partiality.  While  eating, 
Ishmaelites  approached.  They  sat  down  to  eat.  Were  going  down 
into  Egypt.  Camels  loaded  with  spices.  At  the  intercession  of  Reu- 
ben they  did  not  kill  Joseph.  Threw  him  alive  into  a  pit.  Ishmaelites 
took  him  down  into  Egypt.  Sold  him  to  Potiphar.  Judah  advised 
that  he  be  raised  from  the  pit.  Jacob  recognized  the  coat.  Refused 
comfort.  Rent  his  clothes,  and  put  on  sackcloth.  They  took  his  coat. 
Killed  a  kid,  and  dipped  the  coat  in  its  blood.  Brought  it  to  Jacob. 
**  This  have  we  found  ;  know  now  whether  it  be  thy  son's  coat  or  no." 


immn  4so. 

PARAGRAPHS    AND    THE     THEME. 

Direction. — Classify  these  promiscuous  facts,  determine  ca^refuUy  the 
number  and  the  order  of  the  paragraphs,  and  then  do  as  directed 
above : — 

Trafalgar  a  Spanish  promontory.    Near  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.    Off 


300  Composition, 


Trafalgar,  fleets  of  Spain  and  France,  October  21,  1805.  Nelson  in 
command  of  the  English  fleet.  The  combined  fleets  in  close  line  of 
battle.  CoUingwood  second  in  command.  Had  more  and  larger  can- 
non than  the  English.  English  fleet  twenty-seven  sail  of  the  line  and 
four  frigates.  Thirty-three  sail  of  the  line  and  seven  frigates.  He 
signaled  those  memorable  words:  ''England  expects  every  man  to  do 
his  duty."  Enemy  had  four  thousand  troops.  Signal  received  with  a 
shout.  They  bore  down.  The  best  riflemen  in  the  enemy's  boats.  C. 
steered  for  the  center.  C.  in  the  Royal  Sovereign  led  the  lee  line  of 
thirteen  ships.  A  raking  flre  opened  upon  the  Victory.  N.  in  the 
Victory  led  the  weather  line.  C.  engaged  the  Santa  Anna.  Delighted 
at  being  the  first  in  the  fire.  At  1.15  N.  shot  through  the  shoulder 
and  back.  At  12  the  Victory  opened  fire.  K.'s  secretary  the  first  to  fall. 
Fifty  fell  before  a  shot  was  returned.  "  They  have  done  for  me  at  last, 
Hardy,"  said  N.  They  bore  him  below.  At  2.25  ten  of  the  enemy 
had  struck.  The  wound  was  mortal.  At  4  fifteen  had  struck.  The 
victory  that  cost  the  British  1,587  men  won.  These  were  his  last  words. 
At  4.30  he  expired.  "  How  goes  the  day  with  us  ?  "  he  asked  Hardy. 
"  1  hope  none  of  our  ships  have  struck."  N.'s  death  was  more  than  a 
public  calamity.  "I  am  a  dead  man,  Hardy,"  he  said.  Englishmen 
turned  pale  at  the  news.  Most  triumphant  death  that  of  a  martyr. 
He  shook  hands  with  Hardy.  "Kiss  me,  Hardy."  They  mourned  as 
for  a  dear  friend.  Kissed  him  on  the  cheek.  Most  awful  death  that 
of  the  martyr  patriot.  The  loss  seemed  a  personal  one.  Knelt  down 
again  and  kissed  his  forehead.  His  articulation  difficult.  Heard  to 
say,  "Thank  God,  I  have  done  my  duty."  Seemed  as  if  they  had  not 
known  how  deeply  they  loved  him.  Most  splendid  death  that  of  the 
hero  in  the  hour  of  victory.  Has  left  a  name  which  is  our  pride.  An 
example  which  is  our  shield  and  strength.  Buried  him  in  St.  Paul's. 
Thus  the  spirits  of  the  great  and  the  wise  live  after  them. 

To  the  TeacZier.— Continue  tWs  work  as  long  as  it  is  needed.  Take  any  book, 
and  read  to  the  class  items  of  facts.  Require  them  to  use  the  imagination  and  what- 
ever graces  of  style  are  at  their  command,  in  weaving  these  together. 


Analysis  of  the  Subject  of  the    Theme.  301 


LES: 
ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SUBJECT  OF  THE  THEME. 

Analysis  of  the  Subject.— A  Theme  is  made  up  of  groups  of  sen- 
tences called  Paragraphs.  The  sentences  of  each  paragraph  are 
related  to  each  other,  because  they  jointly  develop  a  single  point,  or 
thought.  And  the  paragraphs  are  related  to  each  other,  because  these 
points  which  they  develop  are  divisions  of  the  one  general  subject  of 
the  Theme. 

After  the  subject  has  been  chosen,  and  before  writing  upon  it,  it 
must  be  resolved  into  the  main  thoughts  which  compose  it.  Upon 
the  thoroughness  of  this  analysis  and  the  natural  arrangement  of  the 
thoughts  thus  derived,  depends  largely  the  worth  of  the  Theme. 
These  points  form,  when  arranged,  the  Framework  of  the  Theme. 

Suppose  you  had  taken  The  Armada  as  your  subject.  Perhaps  you 
could  say  under  these  heads  all  you  wished  :  1.  What  the  Armada 
was.  2.  When  and  hy  whom  equipped.  3.  Its  purpose.  4.  Its  sail 
over  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  entrance  into  the  English  Channel.  5.  The 
attach  upon  it  hy  Admiral  Howard  and  his  great  Captains — Drake 
arid  Hawkins.  6.  Its  dispersion  and  partial  destruction  hy  the  storm. 
7.  The  return  to  Spain  of  the  surviving  ships  and  men.  8.  The  con- 
sequences to  England  and  to  Spain. 

Perhaps  the  1st  point  could  include  the  2d  and  the  3d.  Be  careful 
not  to  split  your  general  subject  up  into  very  many  parts.  See,  too, 
that  no  point  is  repeated,  that  no  point  foreign  to  the  subject  is  intro- 
duced,  and  that  all  the  points  together  exhaust  the  subject  as  nearly 
as  may  be.  Look  to  the  arrangement  of  the  points.  There  is  a 
natural  order  ;  (6)  could  not  precede  (5)  ;  nor  (5),  (4)  ;  nor  (4),  (1). 

To  the  Teacfecr.— Question  the  pupils  carefully  upon  every  point  taken  up  in 
this  Lesson. 

Direction.— Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these  sub- 
jects : — 

1.  The  Arrest  of  Major  Andre.     2.  A  Winter  in  the  Arctic  Region. 


302  Composition, 


L£SS©f)|  l@t. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SUBJECTS. 

Direction. — Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these  sub- 
jects :— 

1.  Battle  of  Plattsburg.    2.  A  Day's  Nutting.     3.  What  does  a 
Proper  Care  for  one's  Health  demand  ? 


ANALYSIS  OF  SUBJECTS. 

Direction. — Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these  sub- 
jects :— 

1.  A  Visit  to  the  Moon.     2.  Keasons  why  one  should  not  Smoke. 
3.  What  does  a  Proper  Observance  of  Sunday  require  of  one  ? 


LESSOU  l@4. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SUBJECTS. 

Direction.— Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these  sub- 
jects : — 

1.  The  Gulf  Stream.    2.  A  Descent  into  a  Whirlpool.    3.  What  are 
Books  Good  for  ? 


LESSOR  ISS. 

HOW  TO   WRITE   A   THEME. 

I.  Choose  a  Subject. — Choose  your  subject  long  before  you  are  to 
write.  Avoid  a  full,  round  term  like  Patriotism  or  Duty ;  take  a 
fragment  of  it  ;  as,  How  can  a  Boy  be  Patriotic  f  or  Duties  which  we 


How  to  Write  a  Theme.  303 

Schoolmates  owe  Each  Other.  The  subject  should  be  on  your  level, 
should  be  interesting  to  you  and  suggestive,  and  should  instantly  start 
in  your  mind  many  trains  of  thought. 

II.  Accumulate  the  Material. — Begin  to  think  about  your  subjects 
Turn  it  over  in  your  mind  in  your  leisure  moments,  and,  as  thoughts 
flash  upon  you,  jot  them  down  in  your  blank-book.  Pay  little  regard 
to  their  order  on  the  page  or  to  their  relative  importance  ;  but,  if  any 
seem  broad  enough  for  the  main  points,  or  heads,  indicate  this.  Talk 
with  no  one  on  the  subject,  and  read  nothing  on  it,  till  you  have 
thought  yourself  empty  ;  and  even  then  you  should  note  down  what 
the  conversation  or  reading  suggests,  rather  than  what  you  have  heard 
or  read. 

in.  Construct  a  Framework.— Before  writing  hunt  through  your 
material  for  the  main  points,  or  heads.  See  to  what  general  truths  or 
thoughts  these  jottings  and  those  jottings  point.  Perhaps  this  or  that 
thought,  as  it  stands,  includes  enough  to  serve  as  a  head.  Be  sure,  at 
any  rate,  that  by  brooding  over  your  material,  and  by  further  thinking 
upon  the  subject,  you  get  at  all  the  general  thoughts  into  which,  as  it 
seems  to  you,  the  subject  should  be  analyzed.  Study  these  points 
carefully.  See  that  no  two  overlap  each  other,  that  no  one  appears 
twice,  that  no  one  has  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  head  that  should 
stand  uThder  some  head,  and  that  no  one  is  irrelevant.  Study  now  to 
find  the  natural  order  in  which  these  points  should  stand.  Let  no 
point,  to  the  clear  understanding  of  which  some  other  point  is  neces- 
sary, precede  that  other.  If  developing  all  the  points  would  make 
your  Theme  too  long,  study  to  see  what  points  you  can  omit  without 
abrupt  break  or  essential  loss. 

IV.  Write.— Give  your  whole  attention  to  your  work  as  you  write, 
and  other  thoughts  wUl  occur  to  you,  and  better  ways  of  putting 
the  thoughts  already  noted  down.  In  expanding  the  main  points  into 
paragraphs,  be  sure  that  everything  falls  under  its  appropriate  head. 


304  Composition. 


Cast  out  irrelevant  matter.  Do  not  strain  after  effect,  or  strive  to  seem 
wiser  than  you  are.  Use  familiar  words,  and  place  these,  your  phrases, 
and  your  clauses,  where  they  will  make  your  thought  the  clearest. 
As  occasion  calls,  change  from  the  natural  order  to  the  transposed, 
and  let  sentences,  simple,  complexj  and  compound,  long  and  short, 
stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  the  paragraph.  Express  yourself  easily 
— only  now  and  then  putting  your  thought  forcibly  and  with  feeling. 
Let  a  fresh  image  here  and  there  relieve  the  imiformity  of  plain  lan- 
guage. One  sentence  should  follow  another  without  abrupt  break  ; 
and,  if  continuative  of  it,  adversative  to  it,  or  an  inference  from  it,  and 
the  hearer  needs  to  be  advised  of  this,  let  it  swing  into  position  on  the 
hinge  of  a  fitting  connective.  Of  course,  your  sentences  must  pass 
rigid  muster  in  syntax  ;  and  you  must  look  sharply  to  the  spelling,  to 
the  use  of  capital  letters,  and  to  punctuation. 

V.  Attend  to  the  Mechanical  Execution. — Keep  your  pages  clean, 
and  let  your  handwriting  be  clear.  On  the  left  of  the  page  leave  a 
margin  of  an  inch  for  corrections.  Do  not  write  on  the  fourth  page  ; 
if  you  exceed  three  pages,  use  another  sheet.  When  the  writing  is 
done,  double  the  lower  half  of  the  sheet  over  the  upper,  and  fold 
through  the  middle  ;  then  bring  the  top  down  to  the  middle  and 
fold  again.  Bring  the  right  end  toward  you,  and  across  the  top 
write  your  name,  the  date,  and  the  name  of  the  teacher  who  is  to  cor- 
rect the  Theme.  This  superscription  will  be  at  the  top  of  the  fourth 
page,  at  the  right-hand  comer,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  ruled  lines. 

To  the  Teacher. — Question  the  pupils  closely  upon  every  point  in  this  Lesson, 
and  insist  that  they  shall  practice  what  is  here  laid  down. 

Additional   Subjects  for  Themes. 

1.  Apples  and  Nuts.  7.  Ancient  and  Modem  Warfare. 

2.  A  Pleasant  Evening.  8.  The  View  from  my  Window. 

3.  My  Walk  to  School.  9.  Homes  without  Hands. 

4.  Pluck.  10.  I  can. 

5.  School  Friendships.  11.  My  Friend  Jack. 

6.  When  my  Ship  comes  in.  12.  John  Chinaman. 


How  to  Write  a  Theme. 


3of 


13.  Irish  Characters. 

50.  Make  Haste  Slowly. 

14.  Robin  Hood. 

51.  Commerce. 

15.  A  Visit  to  Olympus. 

52.  The  Ship  of  the  Desert. 

16.  Monday  Morning. 

53.  Winter  Sports. 

17.  My  Native  Town. 

54.  A  Visit  to  Neptune. 

18.  Over  the  Sea. 

55.  Whiskers. 

19.  Up  in  a  Balloon. 

56.  Gypsies. 

20.  Queer  People. 

57.  Cities  of  the  Dead. 

21.  Our  Minister. 

58.  Street  Cries. 

22.  A  Plea  for  Puss. 

59.  The  World  Owes  me  a  Living. 

23.  Castles  in  Spain. 

60.  Politeness. 

24.  Young  America. 

61.  Cleanliness  akin  to  Godliness. 

25.  Black  Diamonds. 

62.  Fighting  WindmUls. 

26.  Mosquitos. 

63.  Along  the  Docks. 

27.  A  Day  in  the  Woods. 

64.  Maple  Sugar. 

28.  A  Boy's  Trials. 

65.  Umbrellas. 

29.  The  Yankee. 

66.  A  Girl's  Trials. 

30.  Robinson  Crusoe. 

67.  A  Spider's  Web. 

31.  Street  Arabs. 

68.  The  Story  of  Ruth. 

32.  Legerdemain. 

69.  Clouds. 

33.  Our  Neighborhood. 

70.  A  Country  Store. 

34.  Examinations. 

71.  Timepieces. 

35.  Theater-going. 

72.  Bulls  and  Bears. 

36.  Donkeys. 

73.  Bores. 

37.  The  Southern  Negro. 

74.  Our  Sunday  School. 

38.  A  Rainy  Saturday. 

75.  The  Making  of  Beer. 

39.  The  Early  Bird  catches  the 

76.  Autumn's  Colors. 

Worm. 

77.  The  Watched  Pot  never  BoUs. 

40.  Spring  Sports. 

78.  The  Mission  of  Birds. 

41.  How  Horatius  kept  the  Bridge 

.  79.  Parasites. 

42.  Jack  Frost. 

80.  Well-Begun  is  HaK-Done. 

43.  My  First  Sea  Voyage. 

81.  The  Tides. 

44.  Monkeys. 

82.  The  Schoolmaster  in  "  The  De- 

45. Grandmothers. 

serted  Village." 

46.  The  Boy  of  the  Story  Book. 

83.  A  Day  on  a  Trout  Stream. 

47.  Famous  Streets. 

84.  A  Stitch  in  Time  saves  Nine. 

48.  Pigeons. 

85.  Of  What  Use  are  Flowers  ? 

49.  Jack  and  Gill. 

80.  A  Descent  in  a  Diving  Bell. 

,3o6  Composition. 


LETTER-WRITING. 

*  Letters  need  special  treatment.  In  writing  a  letter  there  are  five 
things  to  consider— The  Heading,  The  Introduction,  The  Body  of  the 
Letter,  The  Conclusion,  and  The  Superscription. 

The  Heading. 

Parts. — The  Heading  consists  of  the  name  of  the  Place  at  which 
the  letter  is  written,  and  the  Date.  If  you  write  from  a  city,  give 
the  door-number,  the  name  of  the  street,  the  name  of  the  city,  and  the 
name  of  the  state.  If  you  are  at  a  Hotel  or  a  School  or  any  other 
well-known  Institution,  its  name  may  take  the  place  of  the  door- 
number  and  the  name  of  the  street  ;  as  may  also  the  number  of  your 
post-office  box.  If  you  write  from  a  village  or  other  country  place, 
give  your  post-offloe  address,  the  name  of  the  county,  and  that  of  the 
state. 

The  Date  consists  of  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year. 

How  Written. — Begin  the  Heading  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  top  of  the  page^n  the  first  ruled  line  of  commercial  note.  If 
the  letter  occupies  but  a  few  lines  of  a  single  page,  you  may  begin  the 
Heading  lower  down.  Begin  the  first  line  of  the  Heading  a  little  to 
the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  page.  If  it  occupies  more  than  one  line, 
the  second  line  should  begin  farther  to  the  right  than  the  first,  and  the 
third  farther  to  the  right  than  the  second. 

The  door-number,  the  day  of  month,  and  the  year  are  written  in 
figures,  the  rest  in  words.  Each  important  word  begins  with  a  capital 
letter,  each  item  is  set  off  by  the  comma,  and  the  whole  closes  with  a 
period. 


Letter-  Writing.  307 


Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said,  and  write  the  following  head- 
ings according  to  these  models  r— 

1.  Ripton,  Addison  Co.,  Vt.,  3.  Saco,  Me.,  Feb.  25,  1877. 

July  10,  1875.  4.  Polytechnic  Institute, 

2.  250  Broadway,  N.  Y.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 

June  6,  1860.  May  3,  1868. 

1.  ann  arbor  5  July  1820  michigan.  2.  champlain  co  clinton  n  y  jan 
14  1800.  3.  p  o  box  2678  1860  oct  19  Chicago.  4.  Philadelphia  670 
1858  chestnut  st  16  apr.     5.  saint  nicholas  new  york  1  hotel  nov  1855. 

The  Introduction. 

Parts.— The  Introduction  consists  of  the  Address— the  Name,  the 
Title,  and  the  Place  of  Business  or  Residence  of  the  one  addressed 
—and  the  Salutation.  Titles  of  respect  and  courtesy  should  appear 
in  the  Address.  Prefix  Mr.  to  a  man's  name,  Messrs.  to  the  names 
of  several  gentlemen  ;  Master  to  that  of  a  young  lad  ;  Miss  to  that  of 
a  young  lady  ;  Mrs.  to  that  of  a  married  lady  ;  Misses  to  those  of  sev- 
eral young  ladies  ;  and  Mesdames  to  those  of  several  married  or  elderly 
ladies.  Prefix  Dr.  to  the  name  of  a  physician,  but  never  Mr.  Dr. ; 
Rev.  to  the  name  of  a  clergyman,  or  Rev.  Mr.  if  you  do  not  know 
his  christian  name  ;  Rev.  Dr.  if  he  is  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  or  write 
Rev.  before  the  name  and  D.D.  after  it.  Prefix  His  Excellency  to 
the  name  of  the  President,*  and  to  that  of  a  Governor  or  of  an 
Embassador  ;  Hon.  to  the  name  of  a  Cabinet  Officer,  a  Member  of 
Congress,  a  State  Senator,  a  Law  Judge,  or  a  Mayor.  If  two  literary 
or  professional  titles  are  added  to  a  name,  let  them  stand  in  the  order 
in  which  they  were  conferred — this  is  the  order  of  a  few  common  ones : 
A.M.,  Ph.  D.y  D.D.f  LL.  D.  Guard  against  an  excessive  use  of 
titles — the  higher  implies  the  lower. 

*  The  preferred  form  of  addressing  the  President  is,  To  the  Py^esident,  Executive 
Mansion,  Washington,  B.  C. ;  the  Salutation  is  simply,  Mr.  President. 


308  Composition. 


Salutations  vary  with  the  station  of  the  one  addressed,  or  the 
writer's  degree  of  intimacy  with  him.  Strangers  may  be  addressed 
as  SiVy  Hev.  Sir,  General,  Madam,  etc.  ;  acquaintances  as  Dear  Sir, 
Dear  Madam,  etc.  ;  friends  as  My  dear  Sir,  My  dear  Madam,  My  dear 
Jones,  etc.  ;  and  near  relatives  and  other  dear  friends  as  My  dear  Wife, 
My  dear  Boy,  Dearest  Ellen,  etc. 

How  Written. — The  Address  may  follow  the  Heading,  beginning 
on  the  next  line,  or  the  next  but  one,  and  standing  on  the  left  side  of 
the  page  ;  or  it  may  stand  in  corresponding  position  after  the  body  of 
the  Letter  and  the  Conclusion.  If  the  letter  is  of  an  official  character 
or  is  written  to  a  very  intimate  friend,  the  Address  may  appropriately 
be  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  letter  ;  but  in  all  other  letters,  espe- 
cially those  on  ordinary  business,  it  should  be  placed  at  the  top  and 
as  directed  above.  Never  omit  it  from  the  letter  except  when  the  let- 
ter is  written  in  the  third  person.  There  should  always  be  a  narrow 
margin  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  page,  and  the  Address  should 
always  begin  on  the  marginal  line.  If  the  Address  occupies  more 
than  one  line,  the  initial  words  of  these  lines  should  slope  to  the 
right,  as  in  the  Heading. 

Begin  the  Salutation  on  the  marginal  line  or  a  little  to  the  right  of 
it  when  the  Address  occupies  three  lines  ;  on  the  marginal  line  or 
farther  to  the  right  than  the  second  line  of  the  Address  when  this 
occupies  two  lines  ;  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line  when 
the  Address  occupies  one  line  ;  on  the  marginal  line  when  the  Ad- 
dress stands  below. 

Every  important  word  in  the  Address  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter.  All  the  items  of  it  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma,  and,  as  it 
is  an  abbreviated  sentence  it  should  close  with  a  period.  Every  im- 
portant word  in  the  Salutation  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and 
the  whole  should  be  followed  by  a  comma,  or  by  a  comma  and  a  dash. 


Letter-  Writing — Continued,  309 

Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said,  and  write  the  following  intro- 
dtictions  according  to  the  models : — 

1.  Prof.  March,  Easton,  Pa.  3.  My  dear  Mother, 

My  dear  Sir,  When,  etc. 

2.  Messrs.  Clark  &  Maynard,  4.  Messrs.  Vallette  &  Co., 

771  Broadway,  Middlebury,  Vt. 

New  York  City.  Dear  Sirs, 

Gentlemen, 

1.  mr  george  platt  burlington  iowa  sir.  2.  mass  Cambridge  prof 
James  r  lowell  my  dear  friend.  3.  messrs  ivison  blakeman  taylor  &  co 
gentlemen  new  york.  4.  rev  brown  dr  the  arlington  Washington  dear 
friend  d  c.    5.  col  John  smith  dear  colonel  n  y  auburn. 


LESSOR  i§r. 

LETTER-^A/^RITING— CONTINUED. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter. 

The  Beginning. — Begin  the  Body  of  the  Letter  at  the  end  of  the 

Salutation,  and  on  the  same  line,  if  the  Introduction  is  long — in  which 

case  the  comma  after  the  Salutation  should  be  followed  by  a  dash  ; — on 

the  line  below,  if  the  Introduction  is  short. 

Style. — Be  perspicuous.  Paragraph  and  punctuate  as  in  other  kinds 
of  writing.  Spell  correctly  ;  write  legibly  and  with  care.  Avoid 
blots,  erasures,  interlineations,  cross  lines,  and  all  other  offenses 
against  epistolary  propriety.  The  letter  **  bespeaks  the  man."  Letters 
of  friendship  should  be  colloquial,  chatty,  and  familiar.  Whatever  is 
interesting  to  you  will  be  interesting  to  your  friends,  however  trivial  it 
may  seem  to  a  stranger.  If  addressing  one  of  your  family,  write  just 
as  you  feel,  only  feel  right. 

Bimness  letters  should  be  brief,  and  the  sentences  short,  concise, 
and  to  the  point.     Repeat  nothing,  and  omit  nothing  needful. 

Official  letters  and  formal  notes  should  be  more  stately  and  ceremoni- 


3IO  Composition, 


ous.  In  formal  notes  the  third  person  is  generally  used  instead  of  the 
first  and  the  second  ;  there  is  no  Introduction,  no  Conclusion,  no  Sig- 
nature, only  the  name  of  the  Place  and  the  Date  at  the  bottom,  on  the 
left  side  of  the  page,  thus  :— 

Mr,  <&  Mrs.  A.  request  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  JB.'s  company  at  a  social 
gathering,  on  Tuesday  evening,  Nov.  l^th,  at  eight  o'clock. 

32  Fifth  Ave.,  JSfov.  5. 

Mr.  B.  accepts  with  pleasure  [or  declines  with  sincere  regret  *]  Mr.  & 
Mrs.  A.^s  kind  invitation  for  Tuesday  evening,  Nov.  15th. 
Wednesday  morning,  Nov.  Qth. 

The  Conclusion. 

Parts. — The  Conclusion  consists  of  the  Complimentary  Close,  and 
the  Signature.  The  forms  of  the  Complimentary  Close  are  many,  and 
are  determined  by  the  relations  of  the  writer  to  the  one  addressed.  In 
letters  of  friendship  you  may  use,  Your  sincere  friend  ;  Tours  affec- 
tionately ;  Your  loving  son  or  daughter,  etc.  In  business  letters  you 
may  use,  Yours;  Yours  truly ;  Truly  yours;  Yours  respectfully ;  Very 
respectfully  yours,  etc.  In  official  letters  you  should  be  more  defer- 
ential. Use,  I  have  the  honor  to  he.  Sir,  your  obedient  servant ;  Very 
respectfully,  your  most  obedient  servant;  etc.,  etc. 

The  Signature  consists  of  your  christian  name  and  your  surname. 
In  addressing  a  stranger  write  your  christian  name  in  full.  A  lady 
addressing  a  stranger  shoiild  prefix,  to  her  signature,  her  title,  Mrs.  or 
Miss  (placing  it  within  marks  of  parenthesis),  unless  in  the  letter  she 
has  indicated  which  of  these  titles  her  correspondent  is  to  use  in  reply. 

How  Written. — The  Conclusion  should  begin  near  the  middle  of 
the  first  line  below  the  Body  of  the  Letter,  and,  if  occupying  two  or 

*  Or  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  (or  illness,  or  an  unfortunate  event)  pre- 
vents the  acceptance  of ;  or  regrets  that  on  account  of he  is  unable  to 

nccept . 


Letter-  Writing — Continued,  3 1 1 

more  lines,  should  slope  to  the  right  like  the  Heading  and  the  Address. 
Begin  each  line  of  it  with  a  capital  letter,  and  punctuate  as  in  other 
writing,  following  the  whole  with  a  period.  The  Signature  should  be 
very  plain. 

Direction. —  Write  two  formal  notes — one  inviting  a  friend  to  a  social 
party,  and  one  declining  the  invitation. 

Direction. — Write  the  conclusion  of  a  letter  of  friendship,  of  a  letter  of 
business,  and  of  an  official  letter,  carefully  observing  all  tha^t  h/is  been 
said  above. 

Direction. —  Write  a  letter  of  two  or  three  lines  to  your  father  or  your 
mother,  and  another  to  your  minister,  taking  care  to  give  properly  the 
Heading  in  its  two  parts,  the  Introduction  in  its  two  parts,  and  the  Con- 
clusion in  its  two  parts.  Let  the  Address  in  tlie  letter  to  your  father  or 
your  mother  stand  at  the  bottom. 


LESSON   46$. 


LETTER-WRITING— CONTINUED. 
The  Supersceiption. 

Parts. — The  Superscription  is  what  is  written  on  the  outside  of  the 
envelope.  It  is  the  same  as  the  Address,  consisting  of  the  Name,  the 
Title,  and  the  full  Directions  of  the  one  addressed. 

How  "Written. — The  Superscription  should  begin  just  below  the 
middle  of  the  envelope  and  near  the  left  edge — the  envelope  lying 
with  its  closed  side  toward  you — and  should  occupy  three  or  four 
lines.  These  lines  should  slope  to  the  right  as  in  the  Heading  and 
the  Address,  the  spaces  between  the  line  should  be  the  same,  and 
the  last  line  should  end  near  the  lower  right-hand  comer.  On  the 
first  line  the  Name  and  the  Title  should  stand.  If  the  one  addressed 
is  in  a  city,  the  door-number  and  name  of  the  street  should  be  on 
the  second  line,  the  name  of  the  city  on  the  third,  and  the  name 
of  the   state  on  the  fourth.      If  he  is  in  the  country,  the  name  of 


312 


Composition. 


the  post-office  should  be  on  the  second  line,  the  name  of  the  county  on 
the  third,  the  name  of  the  state  on  the  fourth.  The  number  of 
the  post-office  box  may  take  the  place  of  the  door-number  and  the 
name  of  the  street,  or,  to  avoid  crowding,  the  post-office  box  or  the  name 
of  the  county  may  stand  at  the  lower  left-hand  comer.  The  titles  fol- 
lowing the  name  should  be  separated  from  it  and  from  each  other  by 
the  comma,  and  every  line  should  end  with  a  comma  except  the  last, 
which  should  be  followed  by  a  period.  The  lines  should  be  straight, 
and  every  part  of  the  Superscription  should  be  legible.  Place  the 
stamp  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 

Direction.—  Write  six  Superscriptions  to  real  or  imaginary  friends 
or  acquaintances  in  different  cities,  carefully  observing  all  that  has  been 
said  above. 

Direction. —  Write  two  short  letters — one  to  a  friend  at  the  A  star 
House,  New  Torh,  and  on^  to  a  stranger  in  the  country. 


-t^d-^. 


■ryiye-  '7. 


"li^'l^  ^yiyecc^  ^M^ryi^.  ^^-^^ 


-n^     d^e^e^T^Tl'      'PO'      -T^yO^t^  ^'tyOd^'t    'Clyn^    ^PiyUye^     t::{yyi^^ 


d'O'Uy^/'^^iyl'    ^^[ytt^iMyt>& ,    'tZ'^yiycC    'U-e^'i't^^/TM^  ^yn-^, 


'-C-Ayl^ 


A  Summary  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax.  315 

A   SUMMARY   OF   THE    RULES   OF   SYNTAX. 

At  the  request  of  many  teachers,  we  here  append  a  Summary  of  the 
so-called  Rules  of  Syntax,  with  references  to  the  Lessons  which  treat  of 
Construction. 

I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  subject  or  as  attribute 
complement  of  a  predicate  verb,  or  used  independently,  is  in 
the  nominative  case. 

II.  The  attribute  complement  of  a  participle  or  an  infin- 
itive is  in  the  same  case  (Nom.  or  Obj. )  as  the  word  to  which 
it  relates. 

III.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  possessive  modifier  is  in 
the  possessive  case. 

IV.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  object  complement  or  as 
objective  complement  or  as  the  principal  word  in  a  preposi- 
tional phrase*  is  in  the  objective  case. 

V.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  explanatory  modifier  is  in 
the  same  case  as  the  word  explained. 

For  Cautions,  Principles,  and  Examples  respecting  the  cases  of 
nouns  and  pronouns,  see  Less.  119,  122,  123,  125.  For  Cautions  and 
Fxamples  to  guide  in  the  use  of  the  different  pronouns,  see  Less. 
86,87. 

VI.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person, 
number,  and  gender. 

With  two  or  more  antecedents  connected  by  and,  the  pronoun  is 
plural. 

With  two  or  more  singular  antecedents  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the 
pronoun  is  singular. 

For  Cautions,  Principles^  and  Examples,  see  Less.  118,  142. 

VII.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 
With  two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and,  the  verb  is  plural. 

*  An  "  indirect  object "  or  a  noun  of  measure,  etc.,  used  adverbially,  is  treated  as 
the  principal  word  In  a  prepositional  phrase  (see  Less.  35). 


3i6  A   Summary  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax. 

With  two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected  by  or  or  nor^  the  verb 
is  singular. 
For  Cautions^  Examples,  and  Exceptions,  see  Zess.  142, 

VIII.  A  participle  assumes  the  action  or  being,  and  is 
used  like  an  adjective  or  a  noun. 

For  Uses  of  the  participle,  see  Less.  37,  38,  39. 

IX.  An  infinitive  is  generally  introduced  by  to,  and  with 
it  forms  a  phrase  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

For  Uses  of  the  infinitive,  see  Less.  40,  41,  42. 

X.  Adjectives  modify  nouns  or  pronouns. 

For  Cautions  and  Examples  respecting  the  use  of  adjectives  and  of 
comparative  and  superlative  forms,  see  Less,  90,  91,  128.   - 

XI.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 

For  Cautions  and  Examples,  see  Less.  93. 

XII.  A  preposition  introduces  a  phrase  modifier,  and 
shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its  principal  word  to  the 
word  modified. 

For  Cautions^  see  Less.  98,  99. 

XIII.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clausea 

For  Cautions  and  Examples,  see  Less.  lOO,  107, 

XIV.  Interjections  are  used  independently. 


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The  Most  Reliable  and  Widely-used  Text-Books  on 
Physiology  and  Hygiene. 

A    COMPLETE    COURSE, 

Fully  complying  with  the  Statk  Laws  requiring  Instruction  in  Physiology 

AND  Hygiene,  with  Special  Reference  to  the  Physiological  Effects 

OF  Stimulants  and  Narcotics. 

By  Joseph  0.  Hutchison,  M.D.,  LL.D., 

Me-President  of  the  New  York  Pathological  Society  ;  Ex-Vice-President  of  the  Neiv 

York  Academy  of  Medicine  ;  Surgeon  to  the  Brooklyn  City  Hospital ;  and 

late  President  of  the  Medical  Society  of  the  State  of  New  York. 


FOR  ELEMENTARY  GRADES  AND  UNGRADED  SCHOOLS. 

FiKST  Lessons  in  Physiology.  Fully  illustrated.    160  pages, 

IGmo,  cloth. 

FOR  GRAMMAR  GRADES. 

The  Laws  of  Health.     Copiously  illustrated.     223  pages, 

16ino,  cloth. 

FOR  HIGH-SCHOOLS.  ACADEMIES,  AND  COLLEGES. 

Physiology  and  Hygiene.    With    immei-ous   accui-ate  aud 

artistic  cuts  and  colored  plates.    3-^0  pages,  12nio,  cloth. 

With  the  present  great  number  of  text-books  on  Physiology  which  have  been 

fmlilislied  for  the  suddenly  increased  demand,  and  many  of  them  by  authors  of 
ittle  '»r  uo  exi»erimental  knowledge  of  llieir  subject,  we  believe  tliat  teacliers  will 
see  the  prudence  and  wisdom  of  seleciing  the  works  of  Dr  Hutchison,  who,  by  his 
hijih  professional  position  and  well-kuown  reputation  for  clear  and  thorough  writ- 
in;^-.  is  preeminently  qualifled  for  the  special  work  in  the  Complete  Course. 

From  Samuel  G.  Armor,  M.l>., 
late  Frofe>*.sor  ill  Micliijfan  Univer- 
sity: •"  Many  of  the  popnLir  woi  ks  on 
Physiology  now  in  us>^  in  schools,  acad- 
emies, and  coll»"ges  do  not  reflect  the 
])resent  state  of  the  science,  and  some  of 
them  abound  in  absolute  errors.  The 
work  which  Dr  Hulchison  has  trivcn  to 
the  public  is  free  from  tiiese  objection- 
able f^^at^u•es.  I  give  it  my  hea>  ty  com- 
mendation." 

from  Prof.  Rnit  G.  WIMer.  IT.T)., 
Cornell  Uuiv.rsity,  lllijica,  N.  Y.  : 

I  have  exaini  -"d  vomewliat  carefully 
Hutchison's  Ph:<-si->l  .^^y  and  Hygi'*n«, 
and  "an  recommend  ir,  ns  an  accurate, 
InteliiiTible  and  well-illustrated  text- 
book for  schools. 


From  Boston  Journal  of  Chem- 
istry :  This  book  is  one  of  th*'  very  fn^w 
school-*ionks  on  these  subjects  which 
can  be  unconditionallv  recommended. 
The  "Physiology  and  Hygiene"  is  probably  used  in  more  first-class  Schools  than 
jmy  other  book  on  a  like  subject. 


It  is  accurate,  free  from  needless  tech- 
nicalities, and  judicious  in  the  pi-actical 
advice  it  gives  on  Hygienic  topics.  The 
illustrations  are  excellent,  and  the  book 
is  well  printed  and  bound. 

From  the  Boston  31  ed leal  and 
Surgical  Journal:  "  Legishitors  Jtre 
untiring  in  their  efforts  to  stay  the 
progress  of  intemperance  by  Aarious 
methods,  some  of  which  are  v\e!la(tvi<ed 
and  others  ill  advised,  bnt  the  more 
recent  proposal  of  educators  to  remedy 
the  evil  by  the  early  trainii  g  of-  the 
child  gives  promise  of  bet  er  results. 
The  pi-evention  of  an  evil  by  correct 
education  in  early  life  is  a  more  encour- 
aging process  than  its  cure  l)y  any 
treatment,  either  nuld  or  heroic,  in  later 
years;  and  the  timely  appearance  of 
this  text-book  by  Dr  Hutchison  is 
well  calcula-ted  to  meet  the  demard  for 
such  elementary  iustruction  as  it  c^  n- 
tains  " 


Clark  &  Maynard,  Publishers, 

771   B^oad^A^ay  and  67  &  69  Ninth  Street,  New  York. 


*-:=^V-5.J%^S-i^-*iS?^4i«^^ 


^rf'!*':%^:y^^Z'i^X.^f^^***M:>'^^^^ 


WORD  LESSONS  ryLComnletp  Speller. 

Adapted  for  use  in  the  Higher  Primary,  Intermediate,  and  Gram- 
mar Grades.  Designed  to  teach  the  correct  Spelling,  Pronunciation, 
and  Use  of  such  words  only  as  are  most  common  in  current  literature, 
and  as  are  most  likely  to  be  Misspelled,  Mispronounced  or  Misused, 
and  to  awaken  ne'Wfi  interest  in  the  study  of  Synonyms  and  of  Word- 
Analysis.  By  Aloh^o  Reed,  A.M.,  joint  author  of  "Graded  Lessons 
in  English,"  and  "Higher  Lessons  in  English."    188  pages,  12mo. 

The  book  is  a  complete  SJsM^iler,  and  was  made  to  supplement  the 
reading  lesson  and  (Ither  la^gitage  work.  1st. — By  grouping  those 
diflficulties  which  it  [would  lak'  impossible  to  overcome  if  met  only 
occasionally  and  incidentally  in  the  reader.  2d. — By  presenting  devices 
to  stimulate  the  S|y^|[>  npt  only  to  observe  the  exact  form  of  words, 
but  to  note  carefi^l|BaP&  use  and  different  shades  of  meaning.  3d.  —By 
affording  a  systemipj^coursfe  of  tinning  in  pronunciation. 

Word  Lessons  recognizes  work  already  done  4n,.Ahe  reader,  and 
does  not  atte'fcipt'  it^i^Ketition  as  do  the  old  spellers,  and  other  new 
ones  now  demand ing'Jie'^ention.  ^ 

The  author"^  has  sptired  no  trouble  in  his  search  among  the  works 
of  the  best  vrriters  for  tjieir  best  thoughts,  with  which  to  illustrate  the 
use  of  words.  Gr^t  caii^  has  been  taken  in  grading  the  work  to  the 
growing  vocabulai 


,of  the  le&rner. 


Edward  S.  JoJ^fl^s,  Prfcssoi-  of  Belles 
Lettres  and^English  dtlKture.  S.  C. 
College,  Colujnb^Sr»j|feLys:  "I  beg 
leave  to  express- my  nWjgt \jBdrdial  com- 
mendation of  tlie  book.  Itineets,  more 
perfectly  than  any  other  p'fijive  e^er  seen, 
the  wants  of  our  scljopls.  Wher(BV<;r  I 
have  opportunity,  offlciaHy  or  otherwise, 
I  shall  take  pleasure  in  re'comm ending  its 
introduction." 

Truman  J.  Backus,  Pres.  Packer  Col- 
legiate Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  says: 
"The  book  has  more  than  met  expecta- 
tions.'" 


C.  P.  Colgrove,  A.B.,  Prin.  Normal 
School  of  Upper  Iowa  University, 
Fayette,  Iowa,  says  :  "  I  am  elad  ro  see 
it.  It  is  a  move  in  the  right  direction.  I 
have  been  teaching  spelling  from  the  read- 
ing lei^son,  but  cannot  say  that  I  consider 
the  method  a  success.  Nine-tenths  of  our 
students  fail  in  orthography." 

W.  H.  Foute,  Supt.  of  Public  Instruc- 
tion, Houston,  Tex.,  says:  "Athorouj^h 
and  careful  examination  of  the  matter  of 
your  book  has  made  me  a  perfect  convert 
to  your  plan." 


CLARK  &  MAYNARD.  Publishers,  New  York. 


K»i^w  r«NTi,v>v«?*rH»iWK;«\v^vT-»7A-:r«^^ 


